The interaction between Terahertz radiation and biological tissue

Terahertz (THz) radiation occupies that region of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum between approximately 0.3 and 20 THz. Recent advances in methods of producing THz radiation have stimulated interest in studying the interaction between radiation and biological molecules and tissue. Given that the photon energies associated with this region of the spectrum are 2.0 x 10(-22) to 1.3 x 10(-20) J, an analysis of the interactions requires an understanding of the permittivity and conductivity of the medium (which describe the bulk motions of the molecules) and the possible transitions between the molecular energy levels. This paper reviews current understanding of the interactions between THz radiation and biological molecules, cells and tissues. At frequencies below approximately 6 THz. the interaction may be understood as a classical EM wave interaction (using the parameters of permittivity and conductivity), whereas at higher frequencies. transitions between different molecular vibrational and rotational energy levels become increasingly important and are more readily understood using a quantum-mechanical framework. The latter is of particular interest in using THz to probe transitions between different vibrational modes of deoxyribonucleic acid. Much additional experimental work is required in order to fully understand the interactions between THz radiation and biological molecules and tissue.     

The development of terahertz sources and their applications

The terahertz region of the electromagnetic spectrum spans the frequency range between the mid-infrared and the millimetre/microwave. This region has not been exploited fully to date owing to the limited number of suitable (in particular, coherent) radiation sources and detectors. Recent demonstrations, using pulsed near-infrared femtosecond laser systems, of the viability of THz medical imaging and spectroscopy have sparked international interest; yet much research still needs to be undertaken to optimize both the power and bandwidth in such THz systems. In this paper, we review how femtosecond near-infrared laser pulses can be converted into broad band THz radiation using semiconductor crystals, and discuss in depth the optimization of one specific generation mechanism based on ultra-fast transport of electrons and holes at a semiconductor surface. We also outline a few of the opportunities for a technology that can address a diverse range of challenges spanning the physical and biological sciences, and note the continuing need for the development of solid state, continuous wave, THz sources which operate at room temperature.     

An introduction to medical imaging with coherent terahertz frequency radiation

Methods have recently been developed that make use of electromagnetic radiation at terahertz (THz) frequencies, the region of the spectrum between millimetre wavelengths and the infrared, for imaging purposes. Radiation at these wavelengths is non-ionizing and subject to far less Rayleigh scatter than visible or infrared wavelengths, making it suitable for medical applications. This paper introduces THz pulsed imaging and discusses its potential for in vivo medical applications in comparison with existing modalities.     

Modelling the propagation of terahertz radiation through a tissue simulating phantom

Terahertz (THz) frequency radiation, 0.1 THz to 20 THz, is being investigated for biomedical imaging applications following the introduction of pulsed THz sources that produce picosecond pulses and function at room temperature. Owing to the broadband nature of the radiation, spectral and temporal information is available from radiation that has interacted with a sample; this information is exploited in the development of biomedical imaging tools and sensors. In this work, models to aid interpretation of broadband THz spectra were developed and evaluated. THz radiation lies on the boundary between regions best considered using a deterministic electromagnetic approach and those better analysed using a stochastic approach incorporating quantum mechanical effects, so two computational models to simulate the propagation of THz radiation in an absorbing medium were compared. The first was a thin film analysis and the second a stochastic Monte Carlo model. The Cole-Cole model was used to predict the variation with frequency of the physical properties of the sample and scattering was neglected. The two models were compared with measurements from a highly absorbing water-based phantom. The Monte Carlo model gave a prediction closer to experiment over 0.1 to 3 THz. Knowledge of the frequency-dependent physical properties, including the scattering characteristics, of the absorbing media is necessary. The thin film model is computationally simple to implement but is restricted by the geometry of the sample it can describe. The Monte Carlo framework, despite being initially more complex, provides greater flexibility to investigate more complicated sample geometries.     

Radiation characteristics of helical tomotherapy

Helical tomotherapy is a dedicated intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) system with on-board imaging capability (MVCT) and therefore differs from conventional treatment units. Different design goals resulted in some distinctive radiation field characteristics. The most significant differences in the design are the lack of flattening filter, increased shielding of the collimators, treatment and imaging operation modes and narrow fan beam delivery. Radiation characteristics of the helical tomotherapy system, sensitivity studies of various incident electron beam parameters and radiation safety analyses are presented here. It was determined that the photon beam energy spectrum of helical tomotherapy is similar to that of more conventional radiation treatment units. The two operational modes of the system result in different nominal energies of the incident electron beam with approximately 6 MeV and 3.5 MeV in the treatment and imaging modes, respectively. The off-axis mean energy dependence is much lower than in conventional radiotherapy units with less than 5% variation across the field, which is the consequence of the absent flattening filter. For the same reason the transverse profile exhibits the characteristic conical shape resulting in a 2-fold increase of the beam intensity in the center. The radiation leakage outside the field was found to be negligible at less than 0.05% because of the increased shielding of the collimators. At this level the in-field scattering is a dominant source of the radiation outside the field and thus a narrow field treatment does not result in the increased leakage. The sensitivity studies showed increased sensitivity on the incident electron position because of the narrow fan beam delivery and high sensitivity on the incident electron energy, as common to other treatment systems. All in all, it was determined that helical tomotherapy is a system with some unique radiation characteristics, which have been to a large extent optimized for intensity modulated delivery.     

Magnetic confinement of electron and photon radiotherapy dose: a Monte Carlo simulation with a nonuniform longitudinal magnetic field

It recently has been shown experimentally that the focusing provided by a longitudinal nonuniform high magnetic field can significantly improve electron beam dose profiles. This could permit precise targeting of tumors near critical areas and minimize the radiation dose to surrounding healthy tissue. The experimental results together with Monte Carlo simulations suggest that the magnetic confinement of electron radiotherapy beams may provide an alternative to proton or heavy ion radiation therapy in some cases. In the present work, the external magnetic field capability of the Monte Carlo code PENELOPE was utilized by providing a subroutine that modeled the actual field produced by the solenoid magnet used in the experimental studies. The magnetic field in our simulation covered the region from the vacuum exit window to the phantom including surrounding air. In a longitudinal nonuniform magnetic field, it is observed that the electron dose can be focused in both the transverse and longitudinal directions. The measured dose profiles of the electron beam are generally reproduced in the Monte Carlo simulations to within a few percent in the region of interest provided that the geometry and the energy of the incident electron beam are accurately known. Comparisons for the photon beam dose profiles with and without the magnetic field are also made. The experimental results are qualitatively reproduced in the simulation. Our simulation shows that the excessive dose at the beam entrance is due to the magnetic field trapping and focusing scattered secondary electrons that were produced in the air by the incident photon beam. The simulations also show that the electron dose profile can be manipulated by the appropriate control of the beam energy together with the strength and displacement of the longitudinal magnetic field.     

In vivo study of human skin using pulsed terahertz radiation

Studies in terahertz (THz) imaging have revealed a significant difference between skin cancer (basal cell carcinoma) and healthy tissue. Since water has strong absorptions at THz frequencies and tumours tend to have different water content from normal tissue, a likely contrast mechanism is variation in water content. Thus, we have previously devised a finite difference time-domain (FDTD) model which is able to closely simulate the interaction of THz radiation with water. In this work we investigate the interaction of THz radiation with normal human skin on the forearm and palm of the hand in vivo. We conduct the first ever systematic in vivo study of the response of THz radiation to normal skin. We take in vivo reflection measurements of normal skin on the forearm and palm of the hand of 20 volunteers. We compare individual examples of THz responses with the mean response for the areas of skin under investigation. Using the in vivo data, we demonstrate that the FDTD model can be applied to biological tissue. In particular, we successfully simulate the interaction of THz radiation with the volar forearm. Understanding the interaction of THz radiation with normal skin will form a step towards developing improved imaging algorithms for diagnostic detection of skin cancer and other tissue disorders using THz radiation.     

Monte Carlo investigation of breast intraoperative radiation therapy with metal attenuator plates

In intraoperative electron radiation therapy for breast cancer, attenuation plates are commonly used to protect organs at risk. These plates can be made of different materials, and the correct material (or combination of materials) has to be chosen in order to achieve the desired attenuation, while avoiding excessive backscattered radiation. The Monte Carlo method (BEAMnrcMP and DOSXYZnrcMP) has been used to characterize the electron beam generated by the setup (composed of a nondedicated linac and an applicator), and to simulate the percent depth dose (PDD) for plates of different materials. The beam has been characterized for nominal energies of 9 and 12 MeV. Several differently composed plates have been investigated: it was found, as expected, that the use of a plate presenting to the electron beam a high-Z material (i.e., lead) has to be avoided because of excessive backscatter (up to 52% compared to the PDD without plate). On the other hand, the use of a single low-Z material (i.e., aluminum) in the plate can lead to an insufficient attenuation of the beam. The two-layer plate (6 mm of Al plus 3 mm of Cu) used in S. Chiara Hospital has been found to attenuate the beam almost completely for both considered energies, causing negligible backscatter radiation. The spectrum at various depth and at the tissue-plate interface has also been investigated.     

Enhanced spectral discrimination through the exploitation of interface effects in photon dose data

The convolution/superposition algorithm for computing dose from photon beams in radiation therapy planning requires knowledge of the energy spectrum. The algorithm can compute the dose for a polyenergetic beam as the weighted sum of the individual dose contributions from monoenergetic beams. In this study we exploit interface effects apparent in the dose distributions to discriminate among spectra of high energy photon beams. We have studied the sensitivity of the depth dose distribution to the energy components using a hypothetical beam for various field sizes and depths in water and water-lung-water media. Six theoretical spectra were simulated. We compared depth dose data from these spectra using three quantitative measures which are inherently free of normalization ambiguities: for homogeneous water, the ratio D20/D10 and a logarithmic derivative in the buildup region LD(build-up) and for inhomogeneous lung/water, the lung correction factor (CF). It was found that the ability of both the CF and the LD(build-up) tests to discriminate between the various theoretical spectra were superior to that of the D20/D10 test. This discriminating power of the CF test decreases with increasing field size due to restored electronic equilibrium. The CF test, though, has some advantages over the LD(build-up) test since it is less prone to electron contamination issues and numerical errors. A practical example with a 15 MV photon beam illustrates the process. Consequently, we suggest that as part of a beam-commissioning methodology, designated electronic disequilibrium test cases be implemented in unambiguously determining the correct energy spectrum to be used.     

Scattered radiation from applicators in clinical electron beams

In radiotherapy with high-energy (4-25 MeV) electron beams, scattered radiation from the electron applicator influences the dose distribution in the patient. In most currently available treatment planning systems for radiotherapy this component is not explicitly included and handled only by a slight change of the intensity of the primary beam. The scattered radiation from an applicator changes with the field size and distance from the applicator. The amount of scattered radiation is dependent on the applicator design and on the formation of the electron beam in the treatment head. Electron applicators currently applied in most treatment machines are essentially a set of diaphragms, but still do produce scattered radiation. This paper investigates the present level of scattered dose from electron applicators, and as such provides an extensive set of measured data. The data provided could for instance serve as example input data or benchmark data for advanced treatment planning algorithms which employ a parametrized initial phase space to characterize the clinical electron beam. Central axis depth dose curves of the electron beams have been measured with and without applicators in place, for various applicator sizes and energies, for a Siemens Primus, a Varian 2300 C/D and an Elekta SLi accelerator. Scattered radiation generated by the applicator has been found by subtraction of the central axis depth dose curves, obtained with and without applicator. Scattered radiation from Siemens, Varian and Elekta electron applicators is still significant and cannot be neglected in advanced treatment planning. Scattered radiation at the surface of a water phantom can be as high as 12%. Scattered radiation decreases almost linearly with depth. Scattered radiation from Varian applicators shows clear dependence on beam energy. The Elekta applicators produce less scattered radiation than those of Varian and Siemens, but feature a higher effective angular variance. The scattered radiation decreases somewhat with increasing field size and is spread uniformly over the aperture. Experimental results comply with the results of simulations of the treatment head and electron applicator, using the BEAM Monte Carlo code, and Siemens, but feature a higher effective angular variance. The scattered radiation decreases somewhat with increasing field size and is spread uniformly over the aperture. Experimental results comply with the results of simulations of the treatment head and electron applicator, using the BEAM Monte Carlo code.     

Characteristics of the high-energy photon beam of a 25-MeV accelerator

The CGR Saturne 25 is an isocentrically mounted standing wave medical linear accelerator that produces dual-energy photon beams and a scanned electron beam with six selectable energies between 4 and 25 MeV. The highest energy photon beam is nominally referred to as 23 MV. For this beam the mean energy of the accelerated electron beam on the 1.3 radiation length (4 mm) tungsten x-ray target is found to be approximately 21 MeV, with the energy acceptance stated to be +/- 5%. The electron beam traverses a 270 degrees bending magnet upstream of the x-ray production target. The resulting bremsstrahlung beam passes through a combination steel and lead flattening filter, 4-cm maximum thickness. Dosimetric data for the 23-MV beam are presented with respect to rectangular field output factor, depth of maximum dose as a function of field size, surface and buildup dose, central axis percent depth dose, tissue-phantom ratios, beam profile, applicability of inverse square, and block transmission. Some data are also presented on the effect of different flattening filter designs on apparent beam energy.     

应用Matrixx验证活动挡铅形成的电子束照射野

目的：验证活动挡铅形成的电子束照射野的剂量分布,讨论其所形成的照射野对临床照射的影响。方法：一体式挡铅组成的电子束照射野由一块规则的、对称的10cmx8cm空心挡铅形成,照射野大小：10cmx8cm;活动式挡铅组成的电子束照射野由一块长方形的14cmx4cm实心挡铅和一块规则、对称、一体式10cm~10cm空心挡铅组成,形成的照射野大小：10cmx8cm。使用IBA的I’mRTMatrixx分别测量一体式挡铅的电子束照射野和活动式挡铅形成的形状、面积一样的电子束照射野。用OmniProI’mRT软件得出两种方法形成的照射野在x轴方向上的剂量分布曲线。结果：活动挡铅形成的照射野与一体式挡铅照射野的面积大小一样。但是,一体式挡铅照射野的对称轴与x轴方向上的剂量分布曲线的对称轴相一致,即剂量分布曲线以照射野x=0处的y轴对称分布。活动挡铅照射野的对称轴是x=0处的l,轴,与x轴方向上的剂量分布曲线的对称轴x=-1处的纵轴不一致,即剂量曲线不以照射野的对称轴对称分布,剂量分布不均。结论：技师在使用高能电子束对患者进行照射治疗时,要严格按照计划和医嘱,使用与计划相匹配的一体式挡铅。     

Optimization of combined electron and photon beams for breast cancer

Recently, intensity-modulated radiation therapy and modulated electron radiotherapy have gathered a growing interest for the treatment of breast and head and neck tumours. In this work, we carried out a study to combine electron and photon beams to achieve differential dose distributions for multiple target volumes simultaneously. A Monte Carlo based treatment planning system was investigated, which consists of a set of software tools to perform accurate dose calculation, treatment optimization, leaf sequencing and plan analysis. We compared breast treatment plans generated using this home-grown optimization and dose calculation software for different treatment techniques. Five different planning techniques have been developed for this study based on a standard photon beam whole breast treatment and an electron beam tumour bed cone down. Technique 1 includes two 6 MV tangential wedged photon beams followed by an anterior boost electron field. Technique 2 includes two 6 MV tangential intensity-modulated photon beams and the same boost electron field. Technique 3 optimizes two intensity-modulated photon beams based on a boost electron field. Technique 4 optimizes two intensity-modulated photon beams and the weight of the boost electron field. Technique 5 combines two intensity-modulated photon beams with an intensity-modulated electron field. Our results show that technique 2 can reduce hot spots both in the breast and the tumour bed compared to technique 1 (dose inhomogeneity is reduced from 34% to 28% for the target). Techniques 3, 4 and 5 can deliver a more homogeneous dose distribution to the target (with dose inhomogeneities for the target of 22%, 20% and 9%, respectively). In many cases techniques 3, 4 and 5 can reduce the dose to the lung and heart. It is concluded that combined photon and electron beam therapy may be advantageous for treating breast cancer compared to conventional treatment techniques using tangential wedged photon beams followed by a boost electron field.     

The dependence of mass energy absorption coefficient ratios on beam size and depth in a phantom

The Monte Carlo computer code "electron gamma shower" (EGS) has been used to determine photon spectra in a water phantom. Spectra used by Johns and Cunningham and for the AAPM dosimetry protocol have been used as input data and ratios of average mass energy absorption coefficients have been calculated for a number of depths and field sizes. The results show that there is a slight dependence on both of these parameters. For example, (mu en/P) water graphite for cobalt-60 varies from a value of 1.111 for the primary spectrum in air, to 1.135 at a depth of 20 cm in a phantom for a beam approximately 1 m2 in area. This variation of over 2% is relevant for dosimetry. The variation is less than this for high-energy radiation beams and in most cases can be ignored. The effect is greater for high atomic materials such as bone, where the range of variation of (mu en/P)bone water, again for cobalt radiation, may be as great as 15%. This too is less for high-energy bremsstrahlung spectra.     

高能电子束和光子束混合治疗的临床应用

目的:利用MM50高能电磁扫描电子束的剂量学特性,进行电子束与光子束混合治疗在临床上的应用研究。探讨和评价在胸部肿瘤治疗中靶区和肺及脊髓的剂量分布的改善情况。方法:首先使用绝对剂量仪和三维水箱等设备对MM50高能电子束和光子束物理及剂量特性进行深入的测量,并对数据进行各种分析和处理。然后使用计划系统布野并获得病人的剂量分布,对靶区和重要器官的受量进行比较分析。结果:采用电子线/光子线混合照射的治疗方法与传统的对穿野治疗相比,靶区和重要器官如肺和脊髓的吸收剂量分布得到很大改善。结论:MM50高能电子束和光子束混合治疗在临床上有较高的应用价值。这种技术对纵膈等胸部肿瘤治疗时,可以大大减轻肺部的受量,因而降低放射性肺炎的发生率。     

Effect of transverse magnetic fields on dose distribution and RBE of photon beams: comparing PENELOPE and EGS4 Monte Carlo codes

The application of a strong transverse magnetic field to a volume undergoing irradiation by a photon beam can produce localized regions of dose enhancement and dose reduction. This study uses the PENELOPE Monte Carlo code to investigate the effect of a slice of uniform transverse magnetic field on a photon beam using different magnetic field strengths and photon beam energies. The maximum and minimum dose yields obtained in the regions of dose enhancement and dose reduction are compared to those obtained with the EGS4 Monte Carlo code in a study by Li et al (2001), who investigated the effect of a slice of uniform transverse magnetic field (1 to 20 Tesla) applied to high-energy photon beams. PENELOPE simulations yielded maximum dose enhancements and dose reductions as much as 111% and 77%, respectively, where most results were within 6% of the EGS4 result. Further PENELOPE simulations were performed with the Sheikh-Bagheri and Rogers (2002) input spectra for 6, 10 and 15 MV photon beams, yielding results within 4% of those obtained with the Mohan et al (1985) spectra. Small discrepancies between a few of the EGS4 and PENELOPE results prompted an investigation into the influence of the PENELOPE elastic scattering parameters C(1) and C(2) and low-energy electron and photon transport cut-offs. Repeating the simulations with smaller scoring bins improved the resolution of the regions of dose enhancement and dose reduction, especially near the magnetic field boundaries where the dose deposition can abruptly increase or decrease. This study also investigates the effect of a magnetic field on the low-energy electron spectrum that may correspond to a change in the radiobiological effectiveness (RBE). Simulations show that the increase in dose is achieved predominantly through the lower energy electron population.     

Establishing an Initial Electron Beam Model with Monte Carlo Simulation for a Single 6 MV X-ray Medical Linac Based on Particle Dynamics Characteristics

Objective：In this study, we try to establish an initial electron beam model by combining Monte Carlo simulation method with particle dynamic calculation （TRSV） for the single 6 MV X-ray accelerating waveguide of BJ-6 medical linac. Methods and Materials ： 1. We adapted the treatment head configuration of BJ-6 medical linac made by Beijing Medical Equipment Institute （BMEI） as the radiation system for this study. 2. Use particle dynamics calculation code called TRSV to drive out the initial electron beam parameters of the energy spectrum, the spatial intensity distribution, and the beam incidence angle. 3. Analyze the 6 MV X-ray beam characteristics of PDDc , OARc in a water phantom by using Monte Carlo simulation （ BEAMnrc, DOSXYZnrc） for a preset of the initial electron beam parameters which have been determined by TRSV, do the comparisons of the measured results of PDDm, OARm in a real water phantom, and then use the deviations of calculated and measured results to slightly modify the initial electron beam model back and forth until the deviations meet the error less than 2%. Results：The deviations between the Monte Carlo simulation results of percentage depth doses at PDDc and off-axis ratios OARc and the measured results of PDDm and OARm in a water phantom were within 2%. Conclusion：When doing the Monte Carlo simulation to determine the parameters of an initial electron beam for a particular medical linac like B J-6, modifying some parameters based on the particle dynamics calculation code would give some more reasonable and more acceptable results.     

Sielectric Properties of Terahertz Windows Materials for Bio-sample Measurement

We presented the dielectric properties of three materials for bio-sample measurement using THz transmission spectroscopy.The materials,PE,COC and PVDF,have sufficient transmittance.The results demonstrate that PVDF membranes are suitable media for THz transmission spectrum above 0.3 THz.However,it is not property to measure the solution sample because of the water existed after active processing by ethanol.In this paper,the refractive index,the absorption coefficient,and the complex dielectric functions in the THz region are compared for each material.From the measured dielectric properties,the loss mechanism of THz radiation for each material is also discussed.     

Study of increased radiation when an x-ray tube is placed in a strong magnetic field

When a fixed anode x-ray tube is placed in a magnetic field (B) that is parallel to the anode-cathode axis, the x-ray exposure increases with increasing B. It was hypothesized that the increase was caused by backscattered electrons which were constrained by B and reaccelerated by the electric field onto the x-ray tube target. We performed computer simulations and physical experiments to study the behavior of the backscattered electrons in a magnetic field, and their effects on the radiation output, x-ray spectrum, and off-focal radiation. A Monte Carlo program (EGS4) was used to generate the combined energy and angular distribution of the backscattered electrons. The electron trajectories were traced and their landing locations back on the anode were calculated. Radiation emission from each point was modeled with published data (IPEM Report 78), and thus the exposure rate and x-ray spectrum with the contribution of backscattered electrons could be predicted. The point spread function for a pencil beam of electrons was generated and then convolved with the density map of primary electrons incident on the anode as simulated with a finite element program (Opera-3d, Vector Fields, UK). The total spatial distribution of x-ray emission could then be calculated. Simulations showed that for an x-ray tube working at 65 kV, about 54% of the electrons incident on the target were backscattered. In a magnetic field of 0.5 T, although the exposure would be increased by 33%, only a small fraction of the backscattered electrons landed within the focal spot area. The x-ray spectrum was slightly shifted to lower energies and the half value layer (HVL) was reduced by about 6%. Measurements of the exposure rate, half value layer and focal spot distribution were acquired as functions of B. Good agreement was observed between experimental data and simulation results. The wide spatial distribution of secondary x-ray emission can degrade the MTF of the x-ray system at low spatial frequencies for B < 0.5 T.     

Beam range estimation by measuring bremsstrahlung

We describe a new method for estimating the beam range in heavy-ion radiation therapy by measuring the ion beam bremsstrahlung. We experimentally confirm that the secondary electron bremsstrahlung process provides the dominant bremsstrahlung contribution. A Monte Carlo simulation shows that the number of background photons from annihilation gamma rays is about 1% of the bremsstrahlung strength in the low-energy region used in our estimation (63-68 keV). Agreement between the experimental results and the theoretical prediction for the characteristic shape of the bremsstrahlung spectrum validates the effectiveness of our new method in estimating the ion beam range.