Family physicians and the risk of suicide in the depressed elderly.

BACKGROUND: Depression is the most frequent psychiatric disorder in the elderly. It is the reason for most suicides in this age group. METHOD: We performed a representative survey in primary care. Two written case vignettes were presented to 170 family physicians in face-to-face interviews which took place in their practices. The case vignettes described either (Case 1) a mildly depressed otherwise healthy old patient or a severely depressed patient (Case 2) with somatic comorbidity. Afterwards the interviewers asked standardized open questions. The physicians were not let into the mental health focus of the study. RESULTS: The response rate was 77.6%. Depression was considered for primary or differential diagnosis by 91.2% of the physicians in Case 1 and by 70% in Case 2 (chi2-test; p < 0.01). For further anamnesis, only 2.4% of the physicians were interested in suicidal ideation of the patient. When directly asked at the end of the interview, 76.9% of the physicians said they would talk about suicide. Those who would not, thought that the patient would communicate suicidal intent himself/herself, or they feared to induce suicide by asking directly. CONCLUSION: Thinking of suicidality and its prevention is not uppermost in the physicians' mind. Therefore, and also with regard to the relatively high rate of depression recognition, we conclude that educational means should not only focus on the recognition and screening of depression, but also on the management--'how to talk about...'--of complex problems like suicide in the elderly, in order to change suicide rates.     

A survey of physicians' attitude towards women with postmenopausal bleeding

Objective: To study how gynaecologist manage postmenopausal bleeding in women not using HRT. The impact on the physicians’ attitude of risk factors for endometrial cancer and of the endometrial thickness was essentially accounted for. Methods: Two different case-types were defined by modifying the risk level of developing endometrial cancer. Also the level of endometrial thickness, assessed by ultrasound, was made to vary. In total four case-types were constructed. One case-type was sent at random to each Belgian gynaecologist (n=970). Results: Response rate: 55%. The proportion of physicians who would not investigate the patients’ endometrium varied between 2% (high-risk patient with abnormal ultrasound) and 34% (low risk patient, normal ultrasound). Significant differences were observed in relation to the level of risk factors for endometrial cancer and in relation to endometrial thickness. No significant relationship was found between the choice of the method of endometrial investigation and the risk situation or the ultrasound result. Conclusions: The attitude of Belgian gynaecologists towards postmenopausal bleeding is modified by the presence of risk factors and by the level of endometrium thickness. About one third of physicians would not further investigate the endometrium of a patient with a low risk profile and a normal endometrium as assessed by ultrasound.     

Training Latin American primary care physicians in the WPA module on depression: results of a multicenter trial

BACKGROUND: In order to improve care for people with depressive disorders and to reduce the increasing burden of depression, the American Regional Office of the World Health Organization has launched a major region-wide initiative. A central part of this effort was directed to the primary care system where the diagnosis and treatment of depression are deficient in many countries. This study evaluated the materials developed by the World Psychiatric Association in a training program on depression among primary care physicians by measuring changes in their knowledge, attitudes, and practice (KAP). METHOD: One hundred and seven physicians and 6174 patients from five Latin American countries participated in the trial. KAP were assessed 1 month before and 1 month following the training program. In addition, the presence of depressive symptoms was measured in patients who visited the clinic during a typical week at both times using the Zung Depression Scale and a DSM-IV/ ICD-10 major depression checklist. RESULTS: The program slightly improved knowledge about depression and modified some attitudes, but had limited impact on actual practice. There was no evidence that the diagnosis of depression was made more frequently, nor was there an improvement in psychopharmacological management. The post-training agreement between physician diagnosis and that based on patient self-report remained low. The physicians, however, seemed more confident in treating depressed patients after training, and referred fewer patients to psychiatrists. CONCLUSIONS: Traditional means of training primary care physicians in depression have little impact on clinical practice regardless of the quality of the teaching materials.     

Training primary care physicians in Chile in the diagnosis and treatment of depression

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the results of a brief 2-day educational training program for Chilean primary care physicians that measured changes in knowledge, attitudes and practice. This World Psychiatric Association (WPA) program was adopted to overcome diagnostic and treatment problems that are found among primary care practitioners. METHODS: 37 primary care physicians from two cities in Chile and 2589 patients participated. Physician's knowledge, attitudes and clinical practice were assessed 1 month prior and 1 month following the training program. In addition, the patients that visited the clinic during a typical week completed depression symptom self-ratings, including the Zung and a DSM-IV/ICD-10 major depression checklist at both times. RESULTS: The results suggested that, with this group of Chilean doctors, the WPA program was effective in improving knowledge about depression and in changing some disorder-related attitudes. In addition, it had some limited impact on actual clinical practice, although the rate of diagnosis remained stable and the post-training agreement between physician diagnosis and patient self-report remained low. The physicians seemed more confident in treating patients and demonstrated increased use of antidepressant agents. CONCLUSION: The inclusion of primary care physicians is a central component of any initiative to reduce the treatment gap and lag of depression, but their competence to play a crucial role remains limited. Further training of primary care physicians to improve the management of major depression continues to be needed.     

Diagnosis of depression in general practice

Depression is well recognized as a public health problem that usually runs the risk of becoming chronic, disabling and life threatening if left untreated. Unfortunately depression remains largely under diagnosed in primary care although more than one in ten cases seen in primary care suffers from this condition. Primary care physicians are strategically placed to detect and treat depression early and thus contribute in secondary prevention of this disorder. This article highlights the problems in diagnosis, the ways depressed patients present to the clinicians, the diagnostic criteria, the detailed interview techniques to arrive at a diagnosis of depression. The article also offers an outline of management of depression in primary care.     

Recognition of depression in medical patients with heart failure

The author examined physician and patient factors related to recognition of depression in depressed medical patients. Medical inpatients over age 50 were systematically identified with depressive disorder (N=1,000). Medical physicians (N=422) treating these patients were asked whether they believed patients had depression warranting specific treatment. Frequency of seeing and treating older depressed patients and attitudes toward treatment effectiveness were key factors related to physicians' recognition of depression. Patient factors were younger age, white race, female gender, and persistence of depression after discharge. Although physicians' intuition about depression course was often correct, persistent depression was not recognized in nearly 40% of patients.     

Major depressive disorder in the African American population

Depression is a common mental disorder that presents with depressed mood. It can become chronic or recurrent and lead to substantial impairment in an individual's ability to function. At this level, it is identified as major depressive disorder (MDD). Depression and MDD occur across all racial and ethnic groups. Although many depressed patients are treated in primary care, depression in these settings has been underdetected and undertreated. African Americans, especially, who suffer from depression are frequently underdiagnosed and inadequately managed in primary care due to patient, physician, and treatment setting factors. Patient factors include being poor, uninsured, restrictive insurance policies, biological-genetic vulnerability, nonresponsiveness to traditional pharmacological interventions, and stigma (i.e., attitudes and perceptions of mental illness). Physician factors include diagnosis and assessment, physician characteristics, physician bias, and culture; and treatment setting factors include systemic variables such as lack of or poor access to health care, racism, environment, and patient management. African Americans are less likely to receive proper diagnosis and treatment, more likely to have depression for long periods of time, and more likely to suffer greater disability from depression. Understanding patient, physician, and treatment setting factors as contributing barriers that impede effective diagnosis and treatment of depression and MDD in African Americans is critical to effective patient management and discovery. Greater African American participation in clinical research trials also is needed to effectively improve, diagnose, and treat depression in African Americans. This article examines depression among African Americans in the context of gender, culture, and psychosocial determinants, and their engagement in clinical trials.     

Increased recognition of depression in primary care. Comparison between primary-care physician and ICD-10 diagnosis of depression

BACKGROUND: Underrecognition and undertreatment of depression in primary care has been regarded as a major public health problem. In contrast, some studies found that among patients labeled as depressed by primary-care physicians (PCPs), a relevant proportion do not satisfy international diagnostic criteria for depression. The aims of this study are: (1) to assess disparity between PCP diagnosis and research diagnosis of depression; (2) to compare antidepressant treatment in concordant and discordant cases of depression. METHODS: Data are gathered from a national survey on depressive disorders in primary care, conducted with the collaboration of 191 PCPs. Three hundred and sixty-one PCP patients were evaluated, and their psychiatric diagnosis was established by the 'unaided' PCPs and by using a research interview for depression. RESULTS: PCPs recognized 79.4% of cases of depression and prescribed antidepressants to 40.9% of them. Yet, 45.0% of patients labeled as depressed by the PCPs were not cases of depression according to ICD-10 criteria; 26.9% of false-positive cases received an antidepressant. Globally, 35% of antidepressants for 'depression' were prescribed to false-positive cases. CONCLUSIONS: Underrecognition and undertreatment of depression in primary care seem to be less alarming. Conversely, PCP diagnoses of depression appear to be more inclusive than psychiatric diagnostic criteria. A possible consequence of this apparently more inclusive diagnostic threshold may be an excessive use of antidepressants. These changes require a corresponding change in research, toward efficacy and safety of the treatment of milder cases, and in education, toward the distinction between the management of mild and severe cases of depression.     

Physicians’ information seeking behavior in patients presenting with heart failure symptoms – Does gender of physician and patient matter?

ObjectiveTo examine differences in the anamnesis in heart failure patients by patient and physician gender.MethodsA factorial experimental design with video vignettes was applied. While the dialog of an initial encounter because of heart failure symptoms was identical in all videos, patients, played by professional actors, differed in terms of gender (male/female), age (55 years/75 years) and Turkish migration history (no/yes). After viewing the video, 128 physicians (50 % female) were asked if they wanted to ask additional questions (yes/no) and if so, what they wanted to ask (open ended). A coding frame was conducted for the open ended question.ResultsCompared to male physicians, female physicians more often said they wanted to ask additional questions, especially about psychosocial aspects. Physicians, particularly female physicians, wanted to ask male patients more often about lifestyle aspects compared to female patients.ConclusionAlthough the dialog was identical in all videos, some variations in the anamnestic approach regarding physician and patient gender were identified. This is in contrast to current heart failure guidelines that recommend a detailed anamnesis in all patients presenting themselves with heart failure symptoms.Practice ImplicationsPrimary care physicians should reflect how possible gender stereotypes may influence their anamnestic behavior.     

Prevalence and rates of recognition of depressive disorders in internal medicine outpatient departments of 23 general hospitals in Shenyang, China

BACKGROUND: One important approach to increasing recognition and treatment rates for depression in urban China is to identify persons with depression who have contact with primary health care services, most of which are provided in the outpatient departments of general hospitals. We aim to assess the prevalence, risk factors and rates of recognition of depressive disorders in internal medicine outpatient departments of general hospitals. METHODS: Outpatients with depression among 5312 consecutive attendees at outpatient internal medicine departments of 23 randomly selected general hospitals in Shenyang are identified by a two-stage screening process using the General Health Questionnaire and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders. Charts of subjects with DSM-IV depressive disorders are reviewed to determine if treating clinicians made a diagnosis of depression or prescribed anti-depressant medications. RESULTS: The current prevalence of any type of depressive disorder was 11.0% (95% CI: 10.1%-12.1%); and those of major depressive disorder, dysthymia, and depression not otherwise specified were 3.6% (3.1%-4.2%), 2.8% (2.4%-3.4%), and 4.1% (3.5%-4.8%) respectively. Only 4.0% (2.5%-6.1%) of the depressed patients were identified by the treating clinician and only 3.0% (1.6%-4.9%) were provided with antidepressant medication. Older age, female gender, reporting religious beliefs, low educational level, low income level and widowhood were independently associated with the occurrence of depression. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of depression in primary care settings in urban China is lower than that reported in most western countries but the risk factors for depression are similar. The very low rates of recognition and treatment are related both to the low rates of care seeking for psychological problems and to the high-volume collective model of hospital-based primary care delivery. Increasing the recognition and treatment of depression in Chinese general hospitals will require changing the attitudes of patients and clinicians and, more importantly, altering the structure of care delivery.     

Five-year compliance with hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal Chinese women in Hong Kong

Objectives: To assess 5-year compliance with hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in Hong Kong Chinese women and the reasons for long-term compliance or non-compliance. Methods: A telephone survey using a standardized questionnaire was conducted in 187 postmenopausal women who had commenced HRT in a referral-only specialist clinic of a university teaching hospital 5 years previously. Over this 5-year period, the cohort had been referred out to primary care doctors once they had become stabilized on treatment. Results: The 5-year compliance rate was 71.1%. The overall compliance rates were nearly the same from 2 and 5 years. ‘Doctors’ advice’ was the most important reason for maintenance of long-term compliance, accounting for 88.0% of all compliant cases. The most frequent reason for non-compliance was that of the experience of side effects. Other important reasons were fear of cancer, fear of other side effects, and discouragement from other doctors. Overall, 16.0% of women expressed concern regarding potential side effects or risk of breast cancer. Younger age at menopause and at time of initial consultation, shorter duration of menopause at presentation and previous history of hysterectomy were associated with a higher degree of compliance at 5 years. Presence or absence of menopausal symptoms, on the other hand, was not a significant factor. Conclusions: The 5-year compliance rate in this cohort of Hong Kong Chinese women was comparable to that reported from predominantly Caucasian populations. The physicians’ role in encouraging postmenopausal women to achieve long-term HRT compliance was observed.     

The effect of physician self-disclosure on patient self-disclosure and patient perceptions of the physician

ObjectivesPhysician self-disclosure is typically seen as patient-centered communication because it creates rapport and is seen as an expression of empathy. Given that many physician behaviors affect patients differently depending on whether they are shown by a female or male physician, we set out to test whether physician self-disclosure affects patients’ intentions to self-disclose and patients’ perceptions of their physicians depending on physicians’ gender.MethodTwo hundred and forty-four participants were recruited and randomly assigned to read one of 4 vignettes as if they were the patient in the dialogue (analogue patient design). They were then asked to report how they would react to the physician and how they perceived the him or her.ResultsPhysicians who self-disclosed were perceived as more empathic than physicians who did not, regardless of physician and patient gender. Physician self-disclosure had an effect on the behavioral intentions of the analogue patients, and this was moderated by physician gender. Analogue patients indicated to be more willing to self-disclose to female than to male physicians who self-disclosed.ConclusionIt is important to consider physician gender when training physicians in patient-centered communication because the same behavior can have different effects on patients depending on whether it originates from a female or a male physician.Practical implicationsPhysicians can use self-disclosure to express empathy. When female physicians do so, they might obtain more personal information from patients, which can positively affect diagnosis and treatment.     

An international study of the relation between somatic symptoms and depression.

BACKGROUND AND METHODS: Patients with depression, particularly those seen by primary care physicians, may report somatic symptoms, such as headache, constipation, weakness, or back pain. Some previous studies have suggested that patients in non-Western countries are more likely to report somatic symptoms than are patients in Western countries. We used data from the World Health Organization's study of psychological problems in general health care to examine the relation between somatic symptoms and depression. The study, conducted in 1991 and 1992, screened 25,916 patients at 15 primary care centers in 14 countries on 5 continents. Of the patients in the original sample, 5447 underwent a structured assessment of depressive and somatoform disorders. RESULTS: A total of 1146 patients (weighted prevalence, 10.1 percent) met the criteria for major depression. The range of patients with depression who reported only somatic symptoms was 45 to 95 percent (overall prevalence, 69 percent; P=0.002 for the comparison among centers). A somatic presentation was more common at centers where patients lacked an ongoing relationship with a primary care physician than at centers where most patients had a personal physician (odds ratio, 1.8; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.2 to 2.7). Half the depressed patients reported multiple unexplained somatic symptoms, and 11 percent denied psychological symptoms of depression on direct questioning. Neither of these proportions varied significantly among the centers. Although the overall prevalence of depressive symptoms varied markedly among the centers, the frequencies of psychological and physical symptoms were similar. CONCLUSIONS: Somatic symptoms of depression are common in many countries, but their frequency varies depending on how somatization is defined. There is substantial variation in how frequently patients with depression present with strictly somatic symptoms. In part, this variation may reflect characteristics of physicians and health care systems, as well as cultural differences among patients.     

What depressive symptoms are associated with the use of care services? Results from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study (NEMESIS)

Background: Depression is generally regarded as a serious, incapacitating illness. Although effective treatment strategies are available, timely recognition remains a stumbling block. We investigated the rates of health service uptake among depressed people and the specific depressive symptoms associated with service use, after adjustment for other illness characteristics and sociodemographic variables. Methods: In a representative sample (n=7076) of the Dutch adult population, we identified 1572 subjects with lifetime major or minor depression, using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Results: The majority (73%) of subjects with depression had sought specialised mental health care, or to a lesser extent primary care. As expected, those with more severe (vegetative), complex (anxiety-comorbid) or dangerous symptoms (suicidal ideation) were more likely to be treated in the specialised mental health sector. However, subjects with comorbid substance use dependence were less likely to receive care, especially primary care, and those with more education were more likely to receive specialised care, even after adjustment for illness characteristics. Limitations: The use of lifetime measures of depression and service use may have introduced slight recall bias, but it made the assessments less vulnerable to selection bias for chronic cases and to misclassification of subjects with some lifetime treatment experience. Conclusions: Although care for people with depression is readily accessible in the Netherlands, people with less education and people with comorbid substance use dependence remain unnecessarily out of reach of the care services. Primary care services need to be strengthened to enable the broad-scale application of stepped-care strategies.     

Management of major depression in the primary care setting

BACKGROUND: Patients treated in community clinics, particularly those of minority status, may rely more heavily on primary care physicians (PCPs) for the diagnosis and management of depression. We wished to determine how PCPs in a community clinic setting initially manage patients newly diagnosed with major depression. METHODS: 698 patients were screened for major depression by the Structural Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R in a community-based primary care health center. Forty outpatients (29 Hispanic) were found to suffer from major depression. A letter explaining positive findings was sent to the patients' PCPs. Medical record charts were reviewed 3 months later to determine the PCP's management following the diagnosis. RESULTS: Of the 38 patients who remained in the study at 3 months, 20 (53%) received no intervention from the PCP by the end of 3 months after diagnosis, and of these, 14 were Hispanic. Five (13%) were prescribed an antidepressant by the PCP. Nine (24%) were referred to mental health services for medication, psychotherapy or combination treatment. Four (11%) were prescribed an antidepressant and then referred to mental health services. Differences between management of Hispanic and non-Hispanic patients were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Independent screening by psychiatrists in primary care settings may not be adequate enough to ensure appropriate management of depression by PCPs. Possible explanations may include time constraints during primary care visits, patient and/or physician reticence, and insufficient education of PCPs about depression.     

Physician-patient communication in HIV disease: the importance of patient, physician, and visit characteristics

BACKGROUND: Although previous work that considered a variety of chronic conditions has shown that higher quality physician-patient communication care is related to better health outcomes, the quality of physician-patient communication itself for patients with HIV disease has not been well studied. OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship of patient, visit, physician, and physician practice characteristics to two measures of physician-patient communication for patients with HIV disease. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey of physicians and patients. SETTING: Cohort study enrolling patients from throughout eastern Massachusetts. STUDY SUBJECTS: 264 patients with HIV disease and their their primary HIV physicians (n = 69). MEASUREMENTS: Two measures of physician-patient communication were used, a five-item general communication measure (Cronbach's alpha = 0.93), and a four-item HIV-specific communication measure that included items about alcohol, drug use, and sexual behaviors (Cronbach's alpha = 0.92). RESULTS: The mean age of patients was 39. 5 years, 24% patients were women, 31.1% were nonwhite, and 52% indicated same-sex contact as their principal HIV risk factor. The mean age of physicians was 39.1 years, 33.3% were female, 39.7% were specialists, and 25.0% self-identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. In multivariable models relating patient and visit characteristics to general communication, longer reported visit length (p<.0001), longer duration of the physician-patient relationship (p =.02), and female gender (p =.04) were significantly associated with better communication. The interaction of patient gender and visit length was also significant (p =.02); longer visit length was more strongly associated with better general communication for male than female patients. In similar models relating patient and visit characteristics to HIV-specific communication, longer visit length (p <.0001) and less advanced disease stage (p =.009) were associated with better communication. In multivariable models relating physician and practice characteristics to general communication no variables were significant. However, both female physician gender (p =.002) and gay/lesbian/bisexual sexual preference (p =.003) were significantly associated with better HIV-specific communication. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, female and homosexual physicians provided higher quality HIV-specific communication than male and heterosexual physicians. Better understanding the processes by which female and homosexual physicians achieve higher quality communication may help other physicians communicate more effectively. Health care providers and third-party payers should be aware that shorter visits may compromise physician-patient communication, and that this effect may be more consequential for male patients.