Evaluation of the Hybrid III and Q-Series Pediatric ATD Upper Neck Loads as Compared to Pediatric Volunteers in Low-Speed Frontal Crashes

Debate exists in the automotive community regarding the validity of the pediatric ATD neck response and corresponding neck loads. Previous research has shown that the pediatric ATDs exhibit hyper-flexion and chin-to-chest contact resulting in overestimations of neck loads and neck injury criteria. Our previous work comparing the kinematics of the Hybrid III and Q-series 6 and 10-year-old ATDs to pediatric volunteers in low-speed frontal sled tests revealed decreased ATD cervical and thoracic spine excursions. These kinematic differences may contribute to the overestimation of upper neck loads by the ATD. The current study compared upper neck loads of the Hybrid III and Q-series 6 and 10-year-old ATDs against size-matched male pediatric volunteers in low-speed frontal sled tests. A 3-D near-infrared target tracking system quantified the position of markers on the ATD and pediatric volunteers (head top, nasion, bilateral external auditory meatus). Shear force (F _x ), axial force (F _z ), bending moment (M _y ), and head angular acceleration ( $ \ddot{\theta }_{\text{head}} $ ) were calculated about the upper neck using standard equations of motion. In general, the ATDs underestimated axial force and overestimated bending moment compared to the human volunteers. The Hybrid III 6, Q6, and Q10 exhibited reduced head angular acceleration and modest increases in upper neck shear compared to the pediatric volunteers. The reduction in axial force and bending moment has important implications for neck injury predictions as both are used when calculating N _ij . These analyses provide insight into the biofidelity of the pediatric ATD upper neck loads in low-speed crash environments.     

Injury risk of a 6-year-old wheelchair-seated occupant in a frontal motor vehicle impact--'ANSI/RESNA WC-19' sled testing analysis

Children with disabilities are transported on a daily basis to schools and developmental facilities. When they travel, they often remain seated in their wheelchairs in vehicles. To study injury risk of pediatric wheelchair users in motor vehicle crashes, three of the same pediatric manual wheelchairs were sled impact tested with a seated Hybrid III 6-year-old ATD using a 20 g/48 km/h frontal crash pulse. The sled test results were compared to kinematic limitations and injury criteria specified in the ANSI/RESNA WC-19, FMVSS 213 and FMVSS 208. All sled test results were below the limits specified in the ANSI/RESNA WC-19 standard and FMVSS 213. All tests exceeded the N(ij) limit of 1 specified in FMVSS 208, and one test exceeded the limit of peak neck tension force. Chest deflection resulting from one of three tests was at the limit specified in FMVSS 208. Our results suggest that children with disabilities who remain seated in their wheelchairs in vehicles may be at risk of neck injury in a frontal impact motor vehicle crash. However, limitations in the biofidelity of the Hybrid III ATD neck raise concern as to the translatability of these findings to the real world. Additional studies are needed to investigate the influence of neck properties and ATD neck biofidelity on injury risk of children who travel seated in their wheelchairs.     

Biomechanical Impact Response of the Human Chin and Manubrium

Chin-to-chest impact commonly occurs in frontal crash simulations with restrained anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) in non-airbag situations. This study investigated the biofidelity of this contact by evaluating the impact response of both the chin and manubrium of adult post-mortem human subjects (PMHSs). The adult PMHS data were scaled to a 10-year-old (YO) human size and then compared with the Hybrid III 10YO child (HIII-10C) ATD response with the same test configurations. For both the chin and manubrium, the responses of the scaled PMHS had different characteristics than the HIII-10C ATD responses. Elevated energy impact tests to the PMHS mandible provided a mean injury tolerance value for chin impact force. Chin contact forces in the HIII-10C ATD were calculated in previously conducted HYGE sled crash simulation tests, and these contact forces were strongly correlated with the Head Injury Criterion (HIC_36 ms). The mean injurious force from the PMHS tests corresponded to a HIC_36 ms value that would predict an elevated injury risk if it is assumed that fractures of the chin and skull are similarly correlated with HIC_36 ms. Given the rarity of same occupant-induced chin injury in booster-seated occupants in real crash data and the disparity in chin and manubrium stiffnesses between scaled PMHS and HIII-10C ATD, the data from this study can be made use of to improve biofidelity of chin-to-manubrium contact in ATDs.     

Hybrid III ATD in Inverted Impacts: Influence of Impact Angle on Neck Injury Risk Assessment

The purpose of this paper is to present a protocol of inverted drop-tests using a 50th percentile Hybrid III Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) and investigate the influence of angle and velocity at impact on neck injury risk assessment. The tests were based on existing cadaveric experimental protocols for inverted seated positions. In this study selected ATD impact orientations were also assessed in both the sagittal and coronal planes. Twenty-six tests were performed at impact velocities from 1.4 to 3.1 m s⁻¹. The drop tests confirmed previously described behavior of the ATD in axial loading of its head/neck/thorax complex. They also showed a significant influence of the initial impact angle on neck injury criteria currently used by researchers in rollover crashworthiness tests. At 1.4 m s⁻¹, the peak upper neck axial force of 4350 N was reduced by an average 1760 ± 80 N for configurations with 30 degrees initial impact angle in any plane, compared to a reference inverted vertical configuration. The N _ij was also significantly influenced. For a given impact velocity, an out-of-both-planes initial configuration resulted in the highest combined outputs. Based on these results, similar dynamic conditions (intrusion velocity, impact duration) may result in significantly different loadings of the Hybrid III neck.     

Characterization of pediatric wheelchair kinematics and wheelchair tiedown and occupant restraint system loading during rear impact

This study characterizes pediatric wheelchair kinematic responses and wheelchair tiedown and occupant restraint system (WTORS) loading during rear impact. It also examines the kinematic and loading effects of wheelchair headrest inclusion in rear impact. In two separate rear-impact test scenarios, identical WC19-compliant manual pediatric wheelchairs were tested using a seated Hybrid III 6-year-old anthropomorphic test device (ATD) to evaluate wheelchair kinematics and WTORS loading. Three wheelchairs included no headrests, and three were equipped with slightly modified wheelchair-mounted headrests. Surrogate WTORS properly secured the wheelchairs; three-point occupant restraints properly restrained the ATD. All tests used a 26 km/h, 11 g rear-impact test pulse. Headrest presence affected wheelchair kinematics and WTORS loading; headrest-equipped wheelchairs had greater mean seatback deflections, mean peak front and rear tiedown loads and decreased mean lap belt loads. Rear-impact tiedown loads differed from previously measured loads in frontal impact, with comparable tiedown load levels reversed in frontal and rear impacts. The front tiedowns in rear impact had the highest mean peak loads despite lower rear-impact severity. These outcomes have implications for wheelchair and tiedown design, highlighting the need for all four tiedowns to have an equally robust design, and have implications in the development of rear-impact wheelchair transportation safety standards.     

An investigation of hybrid III and living human drop tests

The effect of roof crush on restrained occupants has often been discussed without regard to the headroom available, effectiveness of belts, and location of roof crush. In this article, the question of the ability to protect a simply restrained occupant in an environment in which the roof does not crush is addressed. The subjects were inverted and dropped vertically in noncrushable production vehicle compartments and a specially designed drop fixture. Data collected includes head accelerations, vehicle accelerations, head displacements, belt angles, anchor point location, seat position, and belt tension for a variety of occupant sizes. To our knowledge, these are the first inverted living human vertical studies to be scientifically documented and reported. It was found that no head or neck injuries resulted from drops of up to 91 cm and velocities up to 4.2 m/sec for restrained occupants in the absence of roof crush.     

Determination of peak deflections from human surrogates using chestbands in side impact tests

To understand the biomechanics of the human body in motor vehicle environments, physical models including anthropomorphic test devices (ATD) and biological models (postmortem human surrogates) are used, and sled tests are conducted. Deflection is often used as a biomechanical variable to characterize the effects of impact loading and derive injury criteria. The objective of the present study was to evaluate different techniques and recommend a methodology to determine the peak thorax and abdominal deflections from temporal contours using chestbands in oblique lateral impacts. The side impact ATD WorldSID representing human surrogates was positioned on a seat. The seat was rigidly fixed to the platform of an acceleration sled. The oblique load-wall fixed to the sled consisted of separate and adjustable plates to contact the shoulder, thorax, abdomen, and pelvis. Two 59-gage chestbands were wrapped on the thorax and abdomen. Tests were conducted at low, medium, and high velocities (3.4, 6.7, and 7.5 m/s) and three methods, termed the spine-sternum, bilateral, and spine-box, were used to determine the global peak deflection and its angulation. Results indicated that all three methods produced very similar angulations, for all velocity tests, and at both thorax and abdominal regions. However, maximum deflections were the lowest in the spine-sternum, followed by bilateral and spine-box methods, with one exception. Based on the development of deflection contours, locations used in the definitions of the origin, and accuracy in identifying critical locations/points in time-varying contours, results of the present study indicate that the bilateral method is the optimum procedure to determine the oblique peak deflection vector in biomechanical tests.     

Wheelchair integrated occupant restraints: feasibility in frontal impact

Individuals often use their wheelchair as a motor vehicle seat when traveling in motor vehicles. The current use of fixed vehicle-mounted wheelchair occupant restraint systems (FWORSs) often results in poor belt fit and discomfort. Additionally, satisfaction, usability and usage rate of FWORSs during transit use are often low. The automotive industry has shown improved occupant restraint usage, belt fit and injury protection when integrating the upper torso and pelvic restraint in a motor vehicle seat. This study compared occupant injury measures of a FWORS to a concept wheelchair integrated restraint system (WIRS) using a 20g frontal sled impact test with a 30 mph change in velocity. Neck loads, neck moments, head, pelvis and chest acceleration, sternum compression and knee and head excursion data were recorded from the wheelchair seated 50th percentile male hybrid III anthropomorphic test dummy (ATD). The WIRS resulted in a lower head injury criteria (HIC) value, lower sternum compression and a lower upper-torso restraint load than the FWORS.

Compared with the FWORS, increased head, knee and wheelchair excursions and higher neck loads and moments were measured in the WIRS test. Both restraint scenario injury parameters were complied with occupant injury criteria based on General Motors Injury Assessment Reference Values (GM-IARVs) and occupant kinematic requirements defined by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) voluntary standard, J2249. A higher motion criteria index was calculated for the WIRS scenario and a comparable combined injury criteria index was calculated for both restraint scenarios.

The sled impact test showed WIRS concept feasibility, facilitating further development by industrial manufacturers who might further want to pursue this restraint principle to increase wheelchair occupant safety and comfort during transport in motor vehicles.     

Wheelchairs used as motor vehicle seats: seat loading in frontal impact sled testing

Wheelchairs are not typically designed to function as motor vehicle seats. However, many wheelchair users are unable to transfer to a vehicle seat and instead travel seated in their wheelchair. ANSI/RESNA WC19: Wheelchairs Used as Seats in Motor Vehicles provides design and testing requirements, but does not provide wheelchair manufacturers with design guidance related to expected loads imposed upon wheelchair components during a crash. To provide manufacturers with crashworthy design guidance, our study measured wheelchair seat loading during 20g/48kph frontal impact sled tests with a 50th percentile male test dummy. Loading conditions were assessed using two different rear securement point positions. Results of four sled impact tests revealed downward loads ranging from 17 019 to 18 682 N, depending upon rear securement point configuration. Maximum fore/aft shear loads ranged from 4424 to 6717 N across the tests.     

Development and validation of a modified Hybrid-III six-year-old dummy model for simulating submarining in motor-vehicle crashes

In motor-vehicle crashes, young school-aged children restrained by vehicle seat belt systems often suffer from abdominal injuries due to submarining. However, the current anthropomorphic test device, so-called "crash dummy", is not adequate for proper simulation of submarining. In this study, a modified Hybrid-III six-year-old dummy model capable of simulating and predicting submarining was developed using MADYMO (TNO Automotive Safety Solutions). The model incorporated improved pelvis and abdomen geometry and properties previously tested in a modified physical dummy. The model was calibrated and validated against four sled tests under two test conditions with and without submarining using a multi-objective optimization method. A sensitivity analysis using this validated child dummy model showed that dummy knee excursion, torso rotation angle, and the difference between head and knee excursions were good predictors for submarining status. It was also shown that restraint system design variables, such as lap belt angle, D-ring height, and seat coefficient of friction (COF), may have opposite effects on head and abdomen injury risks; therefore child dummies and dummy models capable of simulating submarining are crucial for future restraint system design optimization for young school-aged children.     

Biomechanical analysis of injury criterion for child and adult dummies

The development of human injury tolerance is difficult because of the physical differences between humans and animals, the available dummies, and tissue of the cadaver. Furthermore, human volunteer testing can clearly only be done at subinjurious levels. While considerable biomechanical injury evidence exists for the adult human based on cadaveric studies, little information is available for the pediatric population. However, some material is available from skull bone modulus studies and from the fetal tendon strength and early pediatric studies of the newborn. A review of living human, animal, and human cadaveric studies, which forms the basis for head-neck injury criterion are given. Examples of the use of the Hybrid III dummy for injury prediction such as in the Malibu rollover tests and air bag mechanisms show neck injury levels are considerably above the proposed Malibu 2000 N level.     

Upper Neck Forces and Moments and Cranial Angular Accelerations in Lateral Impact

Biomechanical studies using postmortem human subjects (PMHS) in lateral impact have focused primarily on chest and pelvis injuries, mechanisms, tolerances, and comparison with side impact dummies. A paucity of data exists on the head–neck junction, i.e., forces and moments, and cranial angular accelerations. The objective of this study was to determine lateral impact-induced three-dimensional temporal forces and moments at the head–neck junction and cranial linear and angular accelerations from sled tests using PMHS and compare with responses obtained from an anthropomorphic test device (dummy) designed for lateral impact. Following initial evaluations, PMHS were seated on a sled, restrained using belts, and lateral acceleration was applied. Specimens were instrumented with a pyramid-shaped nine-accelerometer package to record cranial accelerations. A sled accelerometer was used to record the input acceleration. Radiographs and computed tomography scans were obtained to identify pathology. A similar testing protocol was adopted for dummy tests. Results indicated that profiles of forces and moments at the head–neck junction and cranial accelerations were similar between the two models. However, peak forces and moments at the head–neck junction were lower in the dummy than PMHS. Peak cranial linear and angular accelerations were also lower in the dummy than in the PMHS. Fractures to the head–neck complex were not identified in PMHS tests. Peak cranial angular accelerations were suggestive of mild traumatic brain injury with potential for loss of consciousness. Findings from this study with a limited dataset are valuable in establishing response corridors for side impacts and evaluating side impact dummies used in crashworthiness and safety-engineering studies.     

A Lower Limb-Pelvis Finite Element Model with 3D Active Muscles

A lower limb-pelvis finite element (FE) model with active three-dimensional (3D) muscles was developed in this study for biomechanical analysis of human body. The model geometry was mainly reconstructed from a male volunteer close to the anthropometry of a 50th percentile Chinese male. Tissue materials and structural features were established based on the literature and new implemented experimental tests. In particular, the muscle was modeled with a combination of truss and hexahedral elements to define its passive and active properties as well as to follow the detailed anatomy structure. Both passive and active properties of the model were validated against the experiments of Post-Mortem Human Surrogate (PMHS) and volunteers, respectively. The model was then used to simulate driver’s emergency braking during frontal crashes and investigate Knee-Thigh-Hip (KTH) injury mechanisms and tolerances of the human body. A significant force and bending moment variance was noted for the driver’s femur due to the effects of active muscle forces during emergency braking. In summary, the present lower limb-pelvis model can be applied in various research fields to support expensive and complex physical tests or corresponding device design.     

Development and validation of a computer crash simulation model of an occupied adult manual wheelchair subjected to a frontal impact

Wheelchairs are primarily designed for mobility and are not necessarily intended for use as motor vehicle seats. However, many wheelchairs serve as vehicle seats for individuals unable to transfer to a vehicle seat. Subjecting wheelchairs to sled testing, in part establishes the crashworthiness of wheelchairs used as motor vehicle seats. Computer simulations provide a supplemental approach for sled testing, to assess wheelchair response and loading under crash conditions. In this study a nonlinear, dynamic, computer model was developed and validated to simulate a wheelchair and occupant subjected to a frontal impact test (ANSI/RESNA WC19). This simulation model was developed utilizing data from two frontal impact 20 g/48 km/h sled tests, which consisted of identical, adult manual wheelchairs secured with 4-point tiedowns, occupied with a 50th percentile adult male anthropomorphic test device (ATD), restrained with a 3-point occupant restraint system. Additionally, the model was validated against sled data using visual comparisons of wheelchair and occupant kinematics, along with statistical assessments of outcome measures. All statistical evaluations were found to be within the acceptance criteria, indicating the model's high predictability of the sled tests. This model provides a useful tool for the development of crashworthy wheelchair design guidelines, as well as the development of transit-safe wheelchair technologies.     

约束系统误用对6岁儿童乘员头颈部损伤的影响

目的探讨汽车在正面碰撞过程中,约束系统误用对乘坐于后排的6岁儿童乘员头颈部损伤的影响。方法基于已验证的6岁儿童有限元模型,根据ECE R44法规进行加载,在Pam-Crash软件中模拟正确以及错误使用约束系统下的汽车正面碰撞。结果仅使用增高垫时,儿童颈部作用力、力矩最小,但最大颅内压力、最大应力、脑组织最大主应变远大于其损伤阈值,会导致儿童头部产生致命的脑损伤;仅使用成人三点式安全带时,儿童颈部作用力、力矩最大,会对儿童颈部造成严重损伤。结论两种错误使用约束系统的方法加重了6岁儿童头部和颈部的损伤,只有正确使用约束系统,才能对6岁儿童头颈部起到最好的保护效果。     

Biomedical engineering analysis of glass impact injuries

This article outlines the history, development, and safety aspects of glass and its use in motor vehicles. It traces the manufacture and describes the characteristics of laminated and tempered glass. It further compares the differences in injuries caused by impact with laminated and tempered glass. The development, use, and results of high penetration resistance (HPR) laminated glass for windshields are examined. Head and neck injuries from impact with glass and glazing structures are delineated. Results of studies with laminated and tempered glass are presented. The probability and severity of injuries occurring secondary to partial or full ejection of vehicle occupants are discussed, and the differences between the performance of laminated and tempered glass are highlighted. Current research to quantify head and neck injury parameters caused by glass impact during rollover is described. The biomechanics of head and neck injury assessment and the development of injury prediction parameters and reference values, respectively, are reviewed.     

Rib Geometry Explains Variation in Dynamic Structural Response: Potential Implications for Frontal Impact Fracture Risk

The human thorax is commonly injured in motor vehicle crashes, and despite advancements in occupant safety rib fractures are highly prevalent. The objective of this study was to quantify the ability of gross and cross-sectional geometry, separately and in combination, to explain variation of human rib structural properties. One hundred and twenty-two whole mid-level ribs from 76 fresh post-mortem human subjects were tested in a dynamic frontal impact scenario. Structural properties (peak force and stiffness) were successfully predicted (p < 0.001) by rib cross-sectional geometry obtained via direct histological imaging (total area, cortical area, and section modulus) and were improved further when utilizing a combination of cross-sectional and gross geometry (robusticity, whole bone strength index). Additionally, preliminary application of a novel, adaptive thresholding technique, allowed for total area and robusticity to be measured on a subsample of standard clinical CT scans with varied success. These results can be used to understand variation in individual rib response to frontal loading as well as identify important geometric parameters, which could ultimately improve injury criteria as well as the biofidelity of anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) and finite element (FE) models of the human thorax.     

汽车正面碰撞司乘人员足踝创伤研究进展

道路交通创伤已经成为严重的社会问题。随着技术、法规和安全意识的进步,颅脑和胸部等致命创伤有下降的趋势,但是目前尚无有效的防护措施预防司乘人员足踝创伤的发生。通过综述近年来该领域的研究进展,发现大多数司乘人员足踝创伤发生在正面碰撞事故中,司机发生足踝创伤的概率更大,可能与刹车制动足踝特殊受力有直接关系;对于正面碰撞的分型在学术界尚存争议,但是狭窄障碍物正面碰撞所引起的足踝创伤问题已经得到较为统一认识,而对不同形式撞击时足踝创伤的发生和防护机制尚无相关研究。在这一问题的研究中,离体实验和计算模型分析相结合是一种理想的研究手段     

Design,Development, and Analysis of a Surrogate for Pulmonary Injury Prediction

Current anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) measure chest acceleration and deflection to assess risk of injury to the thorax. This study presents a lung surrogate prototype designed to expand the injury assessment capabilities of ATDs to include a risk measure for pulmonary contusion (PC). The surrogate augments these existing measures by providing pressure data specific to the lung and its lobes. The prototype was created from a rendering of a 50th percentile male lung inflated to normal inspiration, obtained from clinical CT data. Surrogate size, lobe volume, and airway cross sections were selected to match the morphology of the lung. Elastomeric urethane was molded via rapid prototyping to create a functional prototype. Pressure sensors in each of the five terminal airways independently monitored pressure traces in the lobes during impacts to the surrogate. Software was created to analyze the surrogate impact pressure data, determine the lobe with the greatest pressure rise for a particular impact, and estimate the initial speed of surface deformation. Calibration testing indicates an approximately linear relationship between peak lobe pressure and surface impact speed. No type I or II errors were demonstrated during lobe detection testing. During repeatability testing, the standard deviation was between 2 and 4% of the mean peak pressure. Ongoing research will focus on correlating surrogate data, pressure pulses, or surface deformation, to risk functions for PC.     

老年人坐立转换时股骨近端应力分布的有限元分析

目的 通过建立股骨近端有限元模型,分析在坐立（sit-to-stand, STS）转换站立阶段初期,股骨近端在自选速度起立和快速起立条件下的损伤风险。方法 将老年人股骨近端CT影像三维重建、逆向建模完成实体模型。通过材料赋值和网格划分建立有限元模型,基于有限元分析软件ANSYS,通过边界条件约束,并加载1.733、1.837 kN载荷,得到不同起立速度下股骨近端的应力分布和应变。结果 应力集中区域均为大转子内侧边缘和股骨颈。应力和微应变峰值出现在大转子内侧边缘。快速起立下应力峰值为30.16 MPa,微应变峰值为2 553.5;自选速度起立下应力和微应变峰值较低,分别为28.69 MPa和2 430.4。对于股骨颈应力集中区,快速、自选速度起立下应力范围分别为13.42~23.46、12.76~25.51 MPa。结论 频繁的STS转换会使老年人股骨近端有疲劳性骨折的风险;快速STS转换比自选速度STS转换对股骨近端有更高的损伤风险。