External carotid endarterectomy: indications, technique, and late results

In the past 14 years, 22 patients (25 operated sides), with occlusion of the internal carotid artery (ICA), underwent ipsilateral external carotid artery (ECA) endarterectomy at our institution. Operative indications were amaurosis fugax in 13 sides and nonlateralizing transient ischemic attacks in the remaining 12. There were no operative deaths. One patient suffered a minor stroke after operation. Follow-up ranged from 6 to 110 months (median 36 months). In 16 cases, simple endarterectomy with or without vein patch closure was performed (type I). In two cases the ostium of the ICA was occluded with interrupted sutures after endarterectomy (type II). In the remaining seven cases the ICA was transposed as a patch over the endarterectomized ECA after endarterectomy (type III). All but six patients (six sides) underwent duplex scanning or angiography during follow-up. Four of nine patients with previous nonlateralizing symptoms had persistent symptoms after operation, whereas none of those with previous amaurosis fugax did. Recurrent occlusive disease was more common in type I reconstructions (p less than 0.05). Proper ECA reconstruction results in long-term patency. In the patient with ipsilateral ICA occlusion, transposition of the ICA as a patch over the endarterectomized ECA offers a valid hemodynamic solution. Objective parameters are needed to identify patients with nonlateralizing symptoms who will benefit from operation.     

Evolution of the treatment of carotid occlusive disease: indications for carotid angioplasty and stenting versus carotid endarterectomy

Carotid endarterectomy (CEA) was established as the gold standard for treatment of carotid occlusive disease by several landmark papers published in the 1990's. Several decades of experience with CEA, however, has revealed high-risk subsets of patients in whom CEA carries increased risk of adverse events. These patients have subsequently been the focus of several randomized trials and registry databases which evaluated and proved non-inferiority of carotid angioplasty and stenting (CAS) in recent years. CAS is now considered an appropriate and equivalent alternative to CEA in these high-risk patients, defined by the presence of severe cardiac, pulmonary, or renal disease or by the presence of local factors such as prior neck radiation, prior neck operations, contralateral carotid occlusion, or surgically inaccessible lesions. Although ongoing trials in normal-risk patients may ultimately expand the indications for CAS, there is currently insufficient evidence to recommend CAS in these patients over CEA. In addition, specific subsets of patients, such as octogenarians or those with anatomic complexity, may have increased incidence of adverse events with CAS and are best served by CEA.     

Eversion carotid endarterectomy for recurrent stenosis after carotid angioplasty/stenting

Restenosis requiring treatment after carotid angioplasty/stenting is uncommon in clinical practice. Treatment options include repeat angioplasty (with or without another stent) or carotid endarterectomy. This report describes a patient with recurrent stenosis treated with eversion carotid endarterectomy and stent removal.     

Evolution of carotid stenting: indications

While carotid angioplasty and stenting has been clearly established as a minimally invasive alternative to endarterectomy for patients with carotid occlusive disease, its indications continue to evolve, being refined as more controlled data of large studies are being accumulated. The purpose of this article is to review the current evidence supporting the application of the technique in certain subsets of patients, and the relative contraindications for its use.     

Technical tips for carotid angioplasty and stenting

Angioplasty and stenting of the carotid artery has become an accepted procedure in properly selected patients with carotid artery stenosis. The potential for devastating neurologic complications and significant hemodynamic changes separates endovascular treatment of the carotid artery from other percutaneous peripheral vascular procedures. In this article, the technique for carotid artery angioplasty and stenting is described and the strategies for management of the hemodynamic changes occuring with carotid stenting are reviewed.     

颈动脉狭窄手术及介入治疗的围术期管理

背景 脑卒中是造成人类死亡的主要原因之一.15％～20％的缺血性脑血管病归因于颈动脉狭窄或闭塞,颈动脉内膜剥脱术(carotid endarterectomy,CEA)和颈动脉血管腔内球囊成形及支架植入术(carotid angioplasty and stenting,CAS)对预防缺血事件发生有效,但围手术期卒中、死亡等并发症对围术期管理提出挑战. 目的 对颈动脉狭窄手术及介入治疗围术期管理进行综述. 内容 重点阐述CEA和CAS围术期危险因素控制、术前评估、麻醉方法与管理、术中神经功能监测和脑保护. 趋向 积极谨慎的围术期管理是保证颈动脉狭窄患者围术期脑氧供需平衡、降低围术期并发症的有效措施.     

Follow-up results of carotid angioplasty with stenting as assessed by duplex ultrasound surveillance

BACKGROUND: Carotid artery stenting (CAS) has become an alternative modality to carotid endarterectomy (CEA) for the treatment of carotid occlusive disease. We report a retrospective review of our institution's experience with CAS versus CEA. METHODS: Postprocedure surveillance duplex, recurrent symptoms, postprocedure strokes, progression of lesions, and rates of re-operation were analyzed in 46 patients who underwent CAS and 48 patients who underwent CEA. The mean length of follow-up evaluation was 13 months. All CAS procedures included neuroprotection devices. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences in progression to critical restenosis (2% vs 2%, P = 1.0), rate of subsequent symptoms or stroke (2% vs 10%, P = .1), or rate of re-interventions were not observed between CAS and CEA groups (2% vs 4%, P = .98). Total mortality (0% vs 2%, P = .33), and the occurrence of major adverse events (2% vs 10%, P = .18) also were not significantly different in the CAS compared with the CEA patients. The average rate of increase in internal carotid velocity at 6 to 12 months (-1% vs 1.1%, P = NS) and 12 to 24 months (-5% vs -6.5%, P = NS) also were equivalent. CONCLUSIONS: Our observed results indicate that CAS may be performed with comparable clinical outcomes and durability of repair comparable with CEA.     

Access site complications with carotid angioplasty and stenting

BACKGROUND: Carotid angioplasty and stenting is a relatively new therapeutic alternative to CEA for treatment of carotid stenosis. The percutaneous transfemoral approach, the standard technique for angioplasty and stent deployment, may not be feasible in all patients. We present our experience with access site complications that occurred with CAS. METHODS: One hundred thirty-two CAS procedures were performed at our institution in the past 5 years for symptomatic (62.1%) or asymptomatic (37.9%) carotid stenosis. Mean age of patients was 70.72 +/- 6.53 years and the mean degree of stenosis of the treated carotids was 80.74% +/- 11.83%. The transfemoral approach was the access route in 126 CAS, the transbrachial approach was used in 2 CAS procedures, and direct carotid exposure was used in 5 patients. RESULTS: All CAS procedures were done successfully; 4 (3%) access site complications were detected, 3 (2.4%) groin hematomas with transfemoral approach and 1 hematoma on the left side of the neck, in patients treated with direct carotid cutdown. Surgical repair of FSA was successfully performed for the patients with groin hematoma, whereas surgical wound exploration in the neck for the remaining patient revealed no identifiable cause. All patients received blood transfusion for correction of associated hypovolemia or hemorrhagic anemia. No patients had experienced access site-related additional cardiac, systemic, or neurologic events. CONCLUSIONS: The authors' experience demonstrates that access site complications are rare events with CAS despite the large diameter of implantable devices and liberal anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy. Transbrachial and direct carotid approaches are relatively safe, accepted alternatives in the setting of contraindicated femoral access.     

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目的探讨颈动脉支架成形术治疗高危颈动脉狭窄的可行性、安全性及短期疗效一方法自200l年8月至2003年7月，共采用颈动脉支架成形术治疗高危颈动脉狭窄8例，术前平均狭窄程度分别为(74.13=13.38)％，均为症状性病人结果狭窄位于颈内动脉6例，位于颈总动脉2例，所有病人均成功地植入支架术后狭窄程度均≤10％。全部病人无临床并发症，5例临床症状消失，3例临床症状不同程度好转随访3～27个月，无短暂性脑缺血发作(TIA)等缺血性神经损害发生；影像学检查无显著再狭窄。结论颈动脉支架成形术治疗颈动脉狭窄安全有效，尤其适合于颈动脉内膜切除术高危的病人，脑保护装置可以有效减少因硬化斑块或血枪引起的并发症     

Postprocedural microembolic events following carotid surgery and carotid angioplasty and stenting

OBJECTIVE: The relative safety of percutaneous carotid interventions remains controversial. Few studies have used diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) to evaluate the safety of these interventions. We compared the incidence and distribution of cerebral microembolic events after carotid angioplasty and stenting (CAS) with distal protection to standard open carotid endarterectomy (CEA) using DW-MRI. METHODS: From November 2004 through August 2006, 69 carotid interventions (27 CAS, and 42 CEA) were performed in 68 males at a single institution. Pre- and postprocedure DW-MRI exams were obtained on each patient undergoing CAS and the 20 most recent CEA operations. These 46 patients (47 procedures as one patient underwent bilateral CEAs in a staged fashion) constitute our study sample, and the hospital records of these patients (27 CAS and 20 CEA) were retrospectively reviewed. The incidence and location of acute, postprocedural microemboli were determined using DW-MRIs and assessed independently by two neuroradiologists without knowledge of the subjects' specific procedure. RESULTS: Nineteen CAS patients (70%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 42%-81%) demonstrated evidence of postoperative, acute, cerebral microemboli by DW-MRI vs none of the CEA patients (0%, 95% CI: 0%-17%) (P < .0001). Of the 19 CAS patients with postoperative emboli, nine (47%) were ipsilateral to the index carotid lesion, three (16%) contralateral, and seven (36%) bilateral. The median number of ipsilateral microemboli identified in the CAS group was 1 (interquartile ranges [IQR]: 0-2, range 0-21). The median number of contralateral microemboli identified in the CAS group was 0 (IQR: 0-1, range 0-5). Three (11%) CAS patients experienced temporary neurologic sequelae lasting less than 36 hours. These patients suffered 12 (six ipsilateral and six contralateral), 20 (19 ipsilateral and one contralateral), and zero microemboli, respectively. By univariate analysis, performing an arch angiogram prior to CAS was associated with a higher risk of microemboli (median microemboli 5 vs none, P =.04) CONCLUSIONS: Although our early experience suggests that CAS may be performed safely (no permanent neurologic deficits following 27 consecutive procedures), cerebral microembolic events occurred in over two-thirds of the procedures despite the uniform use of distal protection. Open carotid surgery in this series seems to offer a lower risk of periprocedural microembolic events detected by DW-MRI.     

Periprocedural hemodynamic instability with carotid angioplasty and stenting

BACKGROUND: Carotid angioplasty and stenting is used for treatment of carotid stenosis. Stent deployment may induce HDI and thereby cause systemic or neurologic deficits. This study defines characteristics and predictors of HDI with CAS. METHODS: A total of 132 patients who had undergone CAS were evaluated for periprocedural and postprocedural HDI (hypertension, systolic blood pressure >160 mm Hg; hypotension, systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg; or bradycardia, heart rate <60 beats per minute). RESULTS: Frequencies of HDI were 6.8% for hypertension, 32.6% for hypotension, and 15.9% for bradycardia. In addition, CAS of the right side (P < .01), carotid bulb lesions (P < .05), eccentric posterior carotid plaque (P < .0001), and general anesthesia (P < .05) were associated significantly with postprocedural HDI. Male sex (OR, 3.4; 95% CI, 1.8-67.2; P < .001), age of 80 years or older (OR, 0.4; 95%CI, 0.1-1.4; P = .011), and plaque ulceration (OR, 0.5; 95% CI, 0.1-9.5; P = .008) independently predicted postprocedural hypertension. Male sex (OR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.3-24.9; P < .001), preprocedural major stroke (OR, 0.1; 95% CI, 0.01-0.8; P = .002), carotid bulb lesions (OR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.1-25.9; P = .024), and contralateral carotid occlusion (OR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.2-4.9; P = .040) all predicted postprocedural hypotension. Bradycardia was associated with diabetes mellitus (OR, 0.7; 95% CI, 0.3-2.4; P = .033), preprocedural TIA (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.4-17.9; P = .020), and minor stroke (OR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1-10.9; P = .037). In 5 patients, HDI predisposed neurologic or systemic deterioration. CONCLUSIONS: Hemodynamic instability is common with CAS; hypotension and bradycardia are more frequent than hypertension. Some clinical, angiographic, and procedural variables can predict these HD changes.     

Credentialing in carotid angiography and carotid angioplasty/stenting: experience of Mayo Clinic Rochester

Carotid angioplasty and stenting is an evolving technique in the treatment of patients with carotid occlusive disease who are at increased risk for carotid endarterectomy. The literature has largely focused on the short and long-term results of this novel procedure. Due to the involvement of multiple disciplines, all of whom have legitimate claims to the carotid territory, credentialing has been a contentious issue at the local hospital level. This article describes the experience of Mayo Clinic Rochester in developing, in a multi-disciplinary manner, documents for credentialing in carotid angiography, carotid intervention, and guidelines for the use of this novel procedure.     

Advantages and indications of transcervical carotid artery stenting with carotid flow reversal

AIM: The aim of this Italian prospective registry was to evaluate the applicability and efficacy of the Mo.Ma Device (Invatec, Roncadelle, Italy) for the prevention of cerebral embolization during carotid artery stenting (CAS) in a real world population. METHODS: In 4 Italian centers, 416 patients (300 men; mean age 71.6+/-9 years) between October 2001 and March 2005 were enrolled in a prospective registry. Two-hundred and sixty-four symptomatic (63.46%) with >50% diameter stenosis and 152 (36.54%) asymptomatic patients with >70% diameter stenosis were included. The Mo.Ma Proximal Flow Blockage Embolic Protection System was used to perform protected CAS, achieving cerebral protection by endovascular clamping of the common carotid artery (CCA) and of the external carotid artery (ECA). RESULTS: Technical success, defined as the ability to establish protection with the Mo.Ma device and to deploy the stent, was achieved in 412 cases (99.03%). The mean duration of flow blockage was 4.91+/-1.1 min. Transient intolerances to flow blockage were observed in 24 patients (5.76%), but in all cases the procedure was successfully completed. No peri-procedural strokes and deaths were observed. Complications during hospitalization included 16 minor strokes (3.84%), 3 transient ischemic attacks (0.72%), 2 deaths (0.48%) and 1 major stroke (0.24%). This resulted in a cumulative rate at discharge of 4.56% all strokes and deaths, and of 0.72% major strokes and deaths. All the patients underwent thirty-day follow-up. At thirty-day follow-up, there were no deaths and no minor and major strokes, confirming the overall cumulative 4.56% incidence of all strokes and deaths rate, and of 0.72% rate of major strokes and deaths at follow up. In 245 cases (58.89%) there was macroscopic evidence of debris after filtration of the aspirated blood. CONCLUSIONS: This Italian multicenter registry confirms and further supports the efficacy and applicability of the endovascular clamping concept with proximal flow blockage in a broad patient series. Results match favorably with current available studies on carotid stenting with cerebral protection.