Anti-inflammatory Effects of Interleukin-4, Interleukin-10, and Transforming Growth Factor-β on Human Placental Cells In Vitro

PROBLEM: To determine the effects of anti-inflammatory cytokines on the production of inflammatory mediators by placental cells. METHOD OF STUDY: Cells from term human placentas were isolated and cultured in vitro in the presence of anti-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β. Their effects on the production of IL-8 and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) were investigated under basal conditions and after stimulation with IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. RESULTS: Both IL-10 and IL-4 inhibited IL-1β- and TNF-α-induced PGE₂ production but had no significant effects on the production of PGE₂ under basal conditions. TGF-β₁ was without effect in stimulated cells, whereas under basal conditions TGF-β₁ stimulated PGE₂ production. Similar trends were seen for IL-8 production, with the exceptions that TGF-β₁ decreased the TNF-α-induced production and IL-4 decreased basal IL-8 production. CONCLUSIONS: The anti-inflammatory effects shown by IL-4, IL-10, and (to lesser extent) TGF-β may play a role in ameliorating the potentially harmful effects of pro-inflammatory mediators in the feto-placental unit.     

Prostaglandin E2 primes naive T cells for the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines

In addition to their capacity to induce pain, vasodilatation and fever, prostaglandins E (PGE) exert anti-inflammatory activities by inhibiting the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines by macrophages and T cells, and by increasing interleukin (IL)-10 production by macrophages. We here report that PGE₂, the major arachidonic acid metabolite released by antigen-presenting cells (APC), primes naive human T cells for enhanced production of anti-inflammatory cytokines and inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Unfractionated as well as CD45RO^?CD31⁺ sort-purified neonatal CD4 T cells acquire the capacity to produce a large spectrum of cytokines after priming with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 monoclonal antibodies (mAb), in the absence of both APC and exogenous cytokines. PGE₂ primes naive T cells in a dose-dependent fashion for production of high levels of IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13, and very low levels of IL-2, interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and TNF-β. PGE₂ does not significantly increase IL-4 production in priming cultures, whereas it suppresses IL-2 and IFN-γ. Addition of a neutralizing mAb to IL-4 receptor in primary cultures, supplemented or not with PGE₂, prevents the development of IL-4-producing cells but does not abolish the effects of PGE₂ on IL-10 and IL-13 as well as T helper (Th)1-associated cytokines. Addition of exogenous IL-2 in primary cultures does not alter the effects of PGE₂ on naive T cell maturation. Thus PGE₂ does not act by increasing IL-4 production in priming cultures, and its effects are partly IL-4 independent and largely IL-2 independent. Together with the recent demonstration that PGE₂ suppresses IL-12 production, our results strongly suggest that this endogenously produced molecule may play a significant role in Th subset development and that its stable analogs may be considered for the treatment of Th1-mediated inflammatory diseases.     

Kinetics and functional implications of Th1 and Th2 cytokine production following activation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in primary culture

The importance of cytokine production in some disease processes is now widely recognized. To investigate temporal relationships between cytokines, we stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in vitro using the T cell mitogen phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and various antigens chosen to induce predominantly Th1 (streptokinase: streptodornase or purified protein derivative) or Th2 (Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, bee or wasp venom: allergens in sensitive subjects) responses. Cytokine production was measured by sensitive bioassays or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Of the 30 subjects studied, 10 were normal and 20 individuals were allergic to either D. pteronyssinus (n = 10) or bee venom (n = 10) (examined before specific allergen immunotherapy). We examined the temporal profiles of a panel of cytokines produced in prmary culture. In PHA-driven cultures, cytokines were found to be sequentially produced in the order interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-3, interferon (IFN)-γ, IL-10, IL-6, IL-12 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. The response to allergen in allergic patients was predominantly Th2 in nature, with the production of IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-10, but little or no IFN-γ. IL-2, IL-3, TNF-α and IL-12 were also produced in low amounts. The response of both atopic and normal subjects to recall bacterial antigens was predominantly Th1, with high levels of IFN-γ, IL-2 and TNF-α. The relevance of the order, amount and speed of production, characteristic kinetics (production, consumption, homeostatic regulation) and the cell source of the cytokines are discussed.     

THE PRESENCE OF CYTOKINES IN LANGERHANS' CELL HISTIOCYTOSIS

Langerhans' cell histiocytosis (LCH) is characterized by an accumulation and/or proliferation of cells with a Langerhans' cell (LC) phenotype. The aetiology and pathogenesis of LCH are unknown; it is suggested that LCH is caused by an immunological dysregulation. Production of cytokines is a central feature of immunological regulation. LCH lesions and normal LCs were studied for the presence of cytokines known to influence the functioning of LCs: IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-4, GM-CSF, IFN-γ, TGF-α, TGF-β, bFGF, and TNF-α. Cytokines were abundantly present within LCH lesions; LCH cells stained for IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-4, GM-CSF, TGF-α, TGF-β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ. Macrophages, lymphocytes, eosinophil granulocytes, and, surprisingly, multinucleated giant cells were also sources of cytokines. These results suggest that cytokines play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of LCH and may explain phenomena that often occur in LCH, such as osteolysis and fibrosis and the recruitment of typical inflammatory infiltrates. The results also suggest that a ‘down-regulatory’ signal is lacking in LCH, resulting in an accumulation and/or proliferation of abnormal LCs.     

Differential modulation of T helper type 1 (Th1) and T helper type 2 (Th2) cytokine secretion by prostaglandin E2 critically depends on interleukin-2

Prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) favors T helper type 2 (Th2)-like cytokine secretion profiles in murine and human CD4⁺ T cells by inhibiting the production of the Th1-associated cytokines interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and up-regulating the production of the Th2-associated cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 in a dose-dependent way. However, the potent inhibition of IL-2 production by PGE₂ seems to be in contrast with the simultaneous up-regulation of IL-4 and IL-5 production, because the induction of these cytokines requires IL-2. We, therefore, investigated to which extent the net modulatory effect of PGE₂ is determined by the availability of IL-2. To this aim, we examined the effects of PGE₂ on the cytokine secretion profiles of a panel of human Th0 clones upon stimulation via different activation pathways, resulting either in high or low IL-2 production. The differential modulation of Th1 and Th2 cytokines by PGE₂ was observed only upon modes of stimulation resulting in high IL-2 production. When IL-2 production was low, PGE₂ inhibited the secretion of all four cytokines. These different modulation patterns were directly related to the IL-2 availability, because (i) neutralizing antibody to IL-2 abrogated the up-regulatory effect of PGE₂ on IL-4 and IL-5 secretion in experiments with high endogenous IL-2 levels, (ii) lack of differential cytokine modulation by PGE₂ in conditions with low levels of endogenous IL-2 could be restored with exogenous IL-2, and (iii) cell viability was comparable in all conditions. These results demonstrate that the net modulatory effect of PGE₂ on the cytokine secretion profile of T cells critically depends on the availability of IL-2. Since this parameter varies with the experimental conditions and the T cell population studied, this finding may explain why certain immune responses may be either up- or down-regulated by PGE₂ under different conditions.     

Bacille Calmette Guérin and interleukin-12 down-modulate interleukin-4-producing CD4+ NK1+ T lymphocytes

Early production of interleukin-12 (IL-12) by macrophages and of IL-4 from CD4⁺ NK1⁺ T cells influence development of the acquired immune response against infectious agents, namely differentiation of interferon-γ-secreting T helper 1 (Th1) cells against intracellular pathogens and of IL-4-producing Th2 cells against helminths. Evidence has been presented for transient convertibility of Th1 and Th2 cells in the presence of the polarizing cytokines IL-4 or IL-12, respectively. Moreover, it is likely that IL-4 dominates over IL-12, suggesting that Th2 cell development is preferred in the presence of both cytokines. Mycobacterium bovis Bacille Calmette Guérin (BCG) and IL-12 are potent inducers of Th1 responses. Here we show that BCG and IL-12 down-modulate IL-4-producing CD4⁺ NK1⁺ TCRα/β^intermediate liver lymphocytes. Our data provide further insights into the mechanisms by which BCG and IL-12 may promote unrestricted development of Th1 responses in vivo: BCG and IL-12 not only provide the positive stimuli for Th1 cell differentiation, but also interfere with antagonizing signals.     

Characterization of cytokine production in murine Trypanosoma cruzi infection by in situ immunocytochemistry: Lack of association between susceptibility and type 2 cytokine production

Cytokine production in the spleens of mice infected with the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi was analyzed in three models which differ in the outcome of the infection. Using immunocytochemical techniques to detect cytokine-producing cells, the production of type 1 [interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon (IFN)-γ], type 2 (IL-4, IL-5, IL-10), inflammatory [tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-1α, IL-6] and regulatory (transforming growth factor-β) cytokines were examined. With the exception of IL-4 and IL-5, cells producing all of the cytokines assayed were detected in both the resistant and susceptible models of T. cruzi infection. Cells producing IL-4 and IL-5 were not detected until later in infection in the resistant mice (>34 days), at about the time animals of the susceptible strain succumb to the infection. Mice of the susceptible model showed a slight delay in the appearance of cells producing the type 1 cytokines IL-2 and IFN-γ and an earlier appearance of TNF-producing cells, in comparison to resistant mice. Cells producing IL-2 or IL-10 were transient in their appearance in the spleen while cells producing IL-1, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF, or TGF-β were first detectable in either the acute or post-acute stage of the infection and persisted up to 700 days post infection in two different resistant models of the infection. Cells producing IFN-γ, TNF-α and TGF-β were particularly numerous even very late in the infection. Double-staining techniques were used to show that the vast majority of the IFN-γ-producing cells in the spleen were CD4^?, CD8^? α/β TCR⁺ T cells. This study confirms the transience of IL-2 production in the acute stage of T. cruzi infection and the persistent and simultaneous production of type 1 and type 2 cytokines during the late-acute and chronic stages of the infection. Susceptibility or resistance to T. cruzi infection does not associate with a Th2 pattern of cytokine production in the three models examined in this study. The overlapping pattern of type 1 and type 2 cytokine-producing cells in both the acute and chronic stages of T. cruzi infection demonstrates that longterm infections do not necessarily lead to a dominance of either type 1 or type 2 cytokine production.     

Few differences in cytokines between patients newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes and their healthy siblings

The cause of the worldwide increase in type 1 diabetes (T1D) is largely unknown. T cells are thought to play a role in disease progression. In contemporary research over the last decade, age- and gender-specific serum levels as well as changes of Th1 and Th2-related cytokines are not well described. From a population-based register of children diagnosed from 1997 to 2005 this study explores eight different cytokines at time of diagnosis. Only TGF-β and IL-18 showed higher levels in patients compared to siblings in an adjusted model (p < 0.01); whereas the other seven cytokines were not significantly different. IL-1β, IL-18, IL-12, IL-10 and IL-4 were significantly higher among the youngest children and males had significantly lower levels of IL-10 and IL-12 but higher levels of TNF-α. During the nine-year study all of the cytokines increased except TGF-β, which showed a slight decrease over time. The cytokine levels tended to be highest during summer and were most pronounced for IL-1β and TNF-α. In conclusion, serum levels of known β-cell cytotoxic cytokines were indifferent in patients and siblings, while gender, age and season appear to exert some influence on the serum level and need to be explored further. The influence of time on systemic levels cannot be ignored and may reflect decay or environmental impact on the immune system.     

佐剂性关节炎大鼠肺功能变化与Th1/Th2细胞、调节性T细胞的相关性研究

目的:探讨细胞因子、Th1/Th2细胞及调节性T细胞(Treg)、转录因子Foxp3在佐剂性关节炎(AA)大鼠肺功能损害中的作用机制。方法:将24只Wistar大鼠随机分为正常对照(NC)组和模型(Model)组,每组12只,向Model组大鼠右后足跖皮内注射弗氏完全佐剂0.1mL致炎,复制成AA模型。致炎48d后,观察两组大鼠足跖肿胀度(E)及关节炎指数(AI),HE染色观察肺组织病理学改变,计算两组大鼠肺系数(LI)、肺泡炎积分,免疫组化染色法检测Foxp3、TGF-β1蛋白表达情况。通过小动物肺功能仪检测肺功能,ELISA法测定细胞因子的变化,流式细胞术(FCM)测定Treg的表达。结果:与NC组相比,Model组大鼠E、AI、LI、1s内平均呼气流量(FEV1/FVC%)、肺泡炎积分、血清TNF-α、Th1/Th2、肺组织TGF-β1、CD4+ CD25- T细胞的表达水平明显升高,且两者差异有统计学意义(P<0.05或P<0.01);用力肺活量(FVC)、25%肺活量的最大呼气流量(FEF25)、50%肺活量的最大呼气流量(FEF50)、75%肺活量的最大呼气流量(FEF75)、最大呼气中期流量(MMF)、用力最大呼气流量(PEF)、肺动态顺应性(Cldyn)、血清IL-10、CD4+ Treg、CD4+ CD25- Treg、肺组织Foxp3蛋白表达水平显著降低(P<0.01)。Spearman相关分析结果显示,AA大鼠肺功能参数分别与E、AI、TNF-α、IL-10、Th1/Th2及CD4+ Treg、CD4+CD25+Treg、CD4+ CD25- T细胞、Foxp3、TGF-β1表达呈相关性,且相关有统计学意义(P<0.05或P<0.01)。结论:大鼠在致炎后对抗原刺激呈高敏反应状态,Th1/Th2状态失衡、CD4+ CD25- T细胞转化成CD4+ CD25+ Treg受阻,免疫调节功能紊乱,释放大量细胞因子和炎症介质,导致局部关节的病变和肺组织损害,从而发生AA肺功能降低。     

Th1/Th2 cytokine gene expression after mercuric chloride in susceptible and resistant rat strains

Mercuric chloride (HgCl₂) has contrasting effects on different rat strains: susceptible strains, e.g. Brown Norway (BN) develop polyclonal B cell activation, multiple autoantibodies and widespread tissue injury. Lewis (LEW) rats are resistant: no autoimmune response occurs after HgCl₂; instead, there is immunosuppression. We have previously shown, by fully quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), up-regulation of interleukin-4 (IL-4) gene expression in HgCl₂-treated BN rats, implicating Th2 cells in the autoimmune syndrome. Involvement of the reciprocal Th1 subset, producing interferon-γ (IFN-γ), in resistance of LEW rats to HgCl₂ has been suggested. We now report extensive analysis of Th1 and Th2 cytokine gene expression in spleen and lymph nodes of susceptible (BN) and resistant (LEW) rats after HgCl₂. IL-4 and IFN-γ were analyzed by quantitative PCR, other cytokines were assessed using semiquantitative PCR: the relative merits of these two techniques are discussed. We show pronounced up-regulation of IL-4 and more modest up-regulation of IFN-γ in BN rats, but no up-regulation of either in LEW rats. Baseline levels of IFN-γ were higher in LEW rats. Semi-quantitative PCR showed increased expression of IL-2, IL-6 and IL-10 in BN; in LEW rats only IL-10 was increased. There was no marked change in IL-5, IL-13 or transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) in either strain. These data further support the key role of IL-4 in HgCl₂-induced autoimmunity, and suggest that failure of up-regulation of IL-4, together with higher baseline IFN-γ expression, accounts for resistance of LEW rats to HgCl₂. However, neither IFN-γ nor TGF-β can be implicated in HgCl₂-induced immunosuppression in the LEW rat in vivo: our data suggest a role for IL-10 in this phenomenon.     

Enhanced prostaglandin E2 production by monocytes in atopic dermatitis (AD) is not accompanied by enhanced production of IL-6, IL-10 or IL-12

AD is associated with a bias of the T helper cells to show increased IL-4 and reduced interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) production. The production of IFN-γ and IL-4 and the development of Th cells into either high IFN-γ or high IL-4 producers is strongly influenced by factors produced by antigen-presenting cells (APC), like IL-12 and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂). IL-12 selectively enhances IFN-γ production and favours the development of IFN-γ-producing Th cells, whereas PGE₂ selectively inhibits IFN-γ production by Th cells. The aim of this study was to test whether the increased IL-4/IFN-γ production ratio by Th cells in AD can be explained by an increased PGE₂/IL-12 production ratio by the APC. Monocytes were used as APC source. PGE₂ and IL-12 production by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated monocytes from 12 AD patients and 12 non-atopic controls was determined using two complementary experimental systems, whole blood cultures and purified monocytes. In addition, we determined IL-6 production as a measure of monocyte activation, and IL-10 production because IL-12 production by monocytes is highly influenced by endogenously produced IL-10. The monocytes from AD patients showed normal production levels of IL-6 and IL-10, a two-fold, but non-significant decrease in IL-12 production, and a significantly (three-fold) higher PGE₂ production than those from non-atopic controls. Here we show for the first time that enhanced PGE₂ production by monocytes in AD is not accompanied by a general rise in cytokine production. We conclude that AD is indeed associated with an increased PGE₂/IL-12 production ratio by monocytes.     

Th1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines in systemic lupus erythematosus

Abstract

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease characterized by the breakdown of immune tolerance leading to excessive inflammation and tissue damage. Imbalance in the levels of cytokines represents one of the multifactorial causes of SLE pathogenesis and it contributes to disease severity. Deregulated levels of T helper type 1 (Th1), type 2 (Th2), and type 17 (Th17) cytokines have been associated with autoimmune inflammation. Growing evidence has shown deregulated levels of Th1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines in SLE patients compared to healthy controls associated with disease activity and severity. In this review, we describe and discuss the levels of Th1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines in SLE patients, and clinical trials involving Th1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines in SLE patients. In particular, with the exception of IL-2, IL-4, and TGF-β1, the levels of Th1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines are increased in SLE patients associated with disease severity. Current phase II or III studies involve therapeutic antibodies targeting IFN-α and type I IFN receptor, while low-dose IL-2 therapy is assessed in phase II clinical trials.     

慢性乙肝患者树突状细胞对Th1/Th2分化的影响

探讨慢性乙肝患者树突状细胞(dendritic cells,DC)对CD4+Th细胞亚群分化的影响。分离慢性乙肝患者外周血单个核细胞(PBMC),以rhIL-4(50 ng/ml)、rhGM-CSF(10 ng/ml)和rhTNF-α(100 u/ml)诱导培养DC。以流式细胞仪检测DC表面CD1a、CD83、CD80、CD86、HLA-DR分子表达情况。MTT法检测DC刺激同种异体淋巴细胞增殖能力。免疫磁珠分离外周血CD4+T细胞亚群,PMA+Ionomycin刺激后胞内荧光染色,流式细胞仪检测辅助性T细胞(helper T cell,Th)内特征性细胞因子IFN-γ/IL-4以判断Th1/Th2分化。ELISA法检测DC或Th细胞培养上清中IL-6、IL-12、IFN-γ和IL-4的含量。结果:慢性乙肝患者的DC表达CD1a、CD83、CD80、CD86、HLA-DR分子水平明显低于正常人(P<0.01);培养至第7天,慢性乙肝患者DC分泌的IL-12水平低于正常人(P<0.01),而分泌的IL-6水平增高(P<0.05)。与正常人相比,慢性乙肝患者外周血中Th1细胞占CD4+T细胞的百分比较低(P<0.01),其Th细胞培养上清中IFN-γ的量也较低(P<0.01)。患者DC与同种异体的健康人Th细胞共培养,刺激Th1型细胞因子IFN-γ产生的能力低于正常人(P<0.01)。慢性乙肝患者体内DC功能的异常可能导致了外周血Th1细胞分化不足。     

β-sitosteryl-3-O-β-glucopyranoside isolated from the bark of Sorbus commixta ameliorates pro-inflammatory mediators in RAW 264.7 macrophages

The bark of Sorbus commixta has been used in Asian traditional medicine for treatment of cough, asthma, bronchial disorders, gastritis and dropsy. However, the anti-inflammatory effect of β-sitosteryl-3- O -β-glucopyranoside, a major compound of the bark of S. commixta, is poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effect and the underlying molecular mechanisms of β-sitosteryl-3-O-β-glucopyranoside in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) and cytokines released from cells were measured using EIA assay kit. The expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) was measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and/or Western blot analysis. β-sitosteryl-3-O-β-glucopyranoside inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) and PGE₂ along with the expression of iNOS and COX-2 in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. In addition, β-sitosteryl-3-O-β-glucopyranoside reduced the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6. Moreover, β-sitosteryl-3-O-β-glucopyranoside inhibited the NF-κB activation induced by LPS, which was associated with the abrogation of IκBα degradation and subsequent decreases in nuclear p65 levels. The result suggested that the β-sitosteryl-3-O-β-glucopyranoside inhibited NO and pro-inflammatory productions by down-regulating the gene expression of pro-inflammatory mediators via the negative regulation of the NF-кB pathway in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.     

Regulation of fetal allograft survival by hormone-controlled Th1- and Th2-type cytokines

There is clear evidence to suggest that the maternal immune system during pregnancy can enhance or inhibit the development of the fetoplacental unit. Recent data support the view that some cytokines produced by both T cells and non-T cells (IL-3, GM-CSF, TGF-β, IL-4, IL-10), favor fetal survival and growth. In contrast, other cytokines, such as IFN-γ, TNF-β and TNF-α, can rather compromise pregnancy. Accordingly, we show here that T-cell clones generated from the decidua of women with unexplained recurrent abortion produced significantly lower concentrations of IL-4 than clones derived from the decidua of voluntary abortions or the endometrium of nonpregnant women. Thus, despite the complexity of the cytokine network, it appears that cytokines favoring the maintenance of fetal survival mainly belong to the Th2 pathway, whereas the failure of pregnancy rather associates with the predominance of Th1-type cytokines and/or the absence of Th2-type cytokines. Interestingly, we also found that, at least in vitro, progesterone promotes the preferential development of Th2-like cells and induces transient IL-4 production by established Th1 cells, whereas relaxin, another corpus luteum-derived hormone, mainly promotes the development of Th1-like cells. These data provide an excellent basis for investigating the relationship between the endocrine and the immune system in the regulation of the maternal-fetal interaction.     

Immunosteroid as a regulator for Th1/Th2 balance: Its possible role in autoimmune diseases

Immune balance controlled by Th1 and Th2 cells is critical for the protection of host from pathogenic invasion while its imbalance becomes the cause of various immune disorders including autoimmune diseases. Cytokines, such as IL-12 and IL-4, are critical factor to drive the differentiation of naïve CD4⁺ T cells to Th1 or Th2 cells. In addition to cytokines, steroid hormones have been demonstrated to affect on the control of Th1/Th2 balance and the onset of autoimmune diseases. Here, we will propose a new concept that immunosteroid, which is designated as a steroid produced by immunoregulatory cells, also play a critical role for regulation of Th1/Th2 balance. First example of immunosteroid is Th2-dependently produced progesterone. Th2 cells, but not Th1 cells expressed P450scc and 20α-HSD and produced progesterone from 22R-hydroxycholesterol in cooperation with 3β-HSD-expressing mouse fibroblasts. Th2-dependently produced progesterone induced apoptotic cell death of Th1 cells and inhibited the differentiation of Th1 cells. While Th2 cells were escaped from toxic effect of progesterone by metabolizing it to non-toxic 20α-hydroxyprogesterone with 20α-HSD. Second example of immunosteroid is dendritic cell (DC)-dependently produced 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)₂D] secosteroid hormone, which has been demonstrated to inhibit autoimmune diseases. We found that 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1α-hydroxylase, which metabolize 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (inactive form) to 1,25(OH)₂D was expressed in Th2-cytokine induced bone marrow-derived DC2 but not Th1-cytokine induced DC1. Moreover, 1,25(OH)₂D was significantly inhibited DC1-induced type1 immunity.

Thus, we initially demonstrated the critical role of immunosteroids in the control of Th1/Th2 balance influencing on the onset of autoimmune diseases. Therefore, it will be an important issue to investigate the possible role of immunosteroids for the regulation of autoimmune diseases.     

Expression of cytokine mRNAs in murine hearts with acute myocarditis caused by coxsackievirus B3

In murine acute viral myocarditis, natural killer (NK) cells infiltrate the heart first, followed by activated T-cells, which play an important role in the pathogenesis of the myocardial damage. Because of their multipotential effects, cytokines are thought to play a role in the induction and development of these immune processes. To clarify in more detail the precise mechanism of the cytokine networks involved, the expression of various cytokine mRNAs has been investigated in myocardial cells infected with Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) in vivo and in vitro by a semiquantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. Interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and TNF-β were expressed almost throughout the early phase of virus infection with some variations. IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-10, interferon (IFN)-γ, granulocyte/macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and IL-2 receptor (IL-2R) were mainly expressed by the infiltrating cells. TNF-α, TNF-β, and IL-1β were also expressed partly by the infiltrating cells. T-helper (Th)1-related cytokines (IL-2, IFN-γ, and TNF-β) were more strongly expressed than Th2-related cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) in vivo, indicating that the Th cells which infiltrated the heart and mediated the immune responses in the early phase of acute myocarditis were mainly of Th1-type. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Serum Th1 and Th2 cytokine balance in patients of superficial transitional cell carcinoma of bladder pre- and post-intravesical combination immunotherapy

Combination therapy with intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) plus interferon-α2b (IFN-α2b) for superficial transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) seems to be immune-dependent and activation of Th1 immune response is required for clinical efficacy. The present study evaluates circulating serum cytokine profiles (Th1/Th2 cytokines IFN-γ, IL-2 TNF-α, IL-4, IL-6 and IL-10) in 41 bladder cancer patients prior to transurethral resection of tumor (TURBT) (pre-therapy), and following intravesical combination immunotherapy (post-therapy) and their association with recurrence. Mean levels of IL-2 and TNF-α were significantly reduced while IL-4, IL-6 and IL-10 were significantly enhanced in pre-therapy samples as compared to controls. Mean levels of IFN-γ, IL-2 and TNF-α were significantly increased while IL-4 and IL-10 were significantly reduced in patients after instillation of combination immunotherapy. These findings suggest that bladder cancer patients develop Th2 dominant status with deficient type 1 immune response that shows tendency to reversal following therapy.